This document discusses research methods in education, including key concepts like independent and dependent variables, quantitative and qualitative approaches, and experimental designs. It describes the components of classroom research as involving the teacher, learner, classroom processes and products. Different data collection instruments are outlined, as are issues like reliability, validity, and triangulation. Experimental and action research are compared, and steps for developing valid and reliable research instruments are provided.

1. Observation &
Research
M. Ed. Maria Luisa Mu

2. Research
• A systematic process of inquiry consisting
of three elements or components:
1. A question, problem, or hypothesis
2. Data
3. Analysis and interpretation of data

3. Variables
• Independent variable:
• The factors that the researcher manipulates in
order to see what effect the changes introduced
will have on the dependent variable.
• Dependent variable:
• The variable that changes or is influenced by the
independent variable.

4. CLASSROOM RESEARCH
THE TEACHER
Beliefs, preparation, pers
onality and individual
characteristics
THE LEARNER
Social context and
individual characteristics
PROCESS VARIABLES
LEARNING PROCESS
ACQUISITION PROCESS
Mental processes and
learning strategies
THE CLASSROOM
Educational treatment of
the curriculum, tasks and
materials
PRODUCT VARIABLES
RESULTS / ATTAINMENT / COMPETENCE / PROFICIENCY
Principles, concepts: grammar functions, cultural aspects…
Procedures skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing
Attitudes and values

5. Approaches to Research
• Quantitative:
• Research that yields numerical
information that can be counted. (high
intervention, objective behaviour and low
inference)
• Qualitative:
• Information that can not be measured
objectively (low intervention, subjective
behaviour and high inference)

6. Approaches to Research
• Eclectic :
• A combination of experimental studies
(more structured and controlled) with
naturalistic/interpretative (less structured,
less controlled) research.

7. Experimental approaches
• Experiment:
• A procedure for testing a hypothesis by
setting up a situation in which the strength
of the relationship between variables can
be tested.

8. Types of experiments
• True experiment: Consists of control and
experiment groups to which subjects have
been randomly assigned, and in which all
subjects are tested before and after the
intervention or treatment under
investigation has been administered to the
experiment group.

9. Types of experiments
• Pre-experiment : has pre and post
treatment tests, but lacks a control group.
• Quasi-experiment : has both pre and
post tests, and experiment and control
groups, but no random assignment of
subjects.

11. Where do we begin?
• Start off with a general issue, a particular
problem to think about.
• Collect data and generate research
questions and hypothesis or
• Pose a hypothesis and collect data by
reading reports of earlier classroom
research and follow up those studies.

12. Instruments
• Interviews: talking to the subjects
• Questionnaires: responded anonymously
• Case Studies: focusing on one or a few
individuals for a long period of time.
• Diaries: provide information about how
learners feel and how they process
information.

13. Issues in collecting Data
• Triangulation: the value of multiple
perspectives
• Data triangulation: using a variety of sampling
strategies
• Investigator triangulation: more than one
observer contributes to the findings
• Methodological: using different methods to
collect data.
• Theoretical: analysing with different
perspectives

14. Issues in collecting data
• Reliability:
• the extent to which an independent
researcher, on analysing your data, would
reach the same conclusions and a
replication of your study would yield similar
results.

15. Types of reliability
• Internal reliability: the concistency of the
results obtained from research .
• External reliability: the extent to which
independent researchers can reproduce a
study and obtain results similar to those
obtained in the original study.

16. Measuring reliability
• To obtain reliability factors:
• Statistical factors: test-retest, parallel
forms, split-halves, - Cronbach, KR-20
Coefficient
• Results should be between 0 ( less
reliability) to 1 ( total reliability)

17. Issues in collecting data
• Validity:
• the extent to which you have really
observed what you set out to observe,
and the extent to which you can generalize
your findings from the subjects and
situations to other groups of subjects and
situations.

18. Types of validity
• Construct validity:
• Construct: A psychological attribute that explains
a phenomenon and that nees to be explained
according to behaviour we can observe.
• Content validity: to make sure that all the
elements are included in the research

19. Types of validity
• Criterion-validity: the validity of the instrument
compared with an external criteria.
• Internal validity: or generalisability: the findings
can be applied to other situations.
• Measuring validity: Factor analysis and
interpretation.

20. So what kind of research?
• Experimental research aims to investigate
a situation without changing it. It tries to
globally understand the phenomenon.
• Action research aims to bring about
changes (for the better) in the specific
situation being investigated. It looks for
local solutions to local problems.

21. Action Research
• A problem is identified
• Data is collected to suggest a solution to
the problem
• Develop a plan of action
• Act to implement the plan
• Observe the effects of action
• Reflect on these effects

22. How to make up instruments
1. List the variables
2. Revise the variable definitions and understand
their meaning
3. Check how each variable is going to be
measured according to validity, reliability,
sample, feasibility, usability, etc.
4. Choose the instruments (already developed)
with reported validity and reliability

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