Research methodology unit ii-data collection

List of Topics
Unit-II
Data Collection
Primary Data collection Methods
Secondary Data collection Methods
Steps in Developing a questionnaire
Construction of a Schedule
Attitudinal scales
Validity and Reliability of the
Instrument

Data collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an
established system, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes.
Methods of Data Collection
• The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
• The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else
and which have already been passed through the statistical process
T.MANOJ KUMAR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A S S T P R O F E S S O R
S K I M T

S K I M T

DATA COLLECTION
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but
incase we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or
census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.
OBSERVATION
• As the name implies, the researcher observes the situation of interest and records the relevant
facts, actions, or behaviors. Observation provides accurate data about what consumers do in
certain situations but do not provide details of why it happened. Observation becomes a
scientific tool when it is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability
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Methods of observation
• Structured
• Disguised
• undisguised observation
• Observation under normal setting
• Direct
• Indirect observation
• Human Observation
• Mechanical Observation
DATA COLLECTION
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Advantages
• The method eliminates subjective bias
• The information obtained under this method relates to what is current happening it is not
complicated either by past behaviour or future intentions and attitudes.
• This method is independent of respondent willingness to respondents as such is relatively less
demanded of active co-operation on the part of the respondents as happens to be the case in
interview or the questionnaire method.
• This method is particularly suitable in studies, which deal with subjects who are not capable
giving verbal reports of their feeling for one reason or the other.
DATA COLLECTION
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Disadvantages
• Its s an expensive method
• The information provided by this method is very limited.
• Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task.
• The fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this
method to collect data effectively.
DATA COLLECTION
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2. PERSONAL INTERVIEW
• An interviewer asking questions generally face-to-face to other persons conducts personal
interview.This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be
an indirect oral investigation.This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
DATA COLLECTION
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Methods of Personnel Interview
• structured interviews
• unstructured interview
• Focused interview
• clinical interview
• non-directive interview
DATA COLLECTION
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Advantages
• More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
• Interviewer can overcome any resistance, if any, of the respondents; this interview can be made to
yield an almost perfect sample of the population.
• There is greater flexibility as questions can be restructured as when needed, especially in the
unstructured interviews.
• Observation method can supplement verbal recording of answers.
• Personal information can be obtained easily in this method.
• Sample control can be maintained, as non-response generally remains low.
• Unlike mailed questionnaire, the interviewer can usually control which persons will answer the
questions.
• The interviewer can catch the respondent off-guard and thus record the spontaneous reactions.
• The language of the interview can be changed according to the education level of the respondent.
• The interviewer can collect supplementary information about respondent's personal characteristics
and environment, which helps while interpreting, results.
DATA COLLECTION

Disadvantages
• It can be quite expensive method, especially when large and widespread geographical sample is
taken.
• Possibility of bias of interviewer and respondent is maximum.
• Certain respondents such as important officials cannot be approachable under this method.
• It is time-consuming especially when sample is large and re-calls o respondents are to be
made.
• Sometimes the presence of he interview can over-stimulate he respondent and he may give
imaginary answers to make the interview interesting.
DATA COLLECTION
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3.TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
• This method of collecting information consists contacting information consists contacting respondents on telephone itself. It
is not a very widely used method, but plays important role in industrial surveys in developed regions.
Key Features or Advantages
• It is more flexible in comparison to mail method.
• It is faster in obtaining information than other methods.
• It is cheaper compared to personal interviews; here the cost per response is very low.
• Recall is easy; callbacks are economic and simple.
• There is higher rate of response than mailing method
• Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
• Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
• Access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason to other.
• No field staff is required.
• Wider distribution of sample is possible.
DATA COLLECTION
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Disadvantages
• Little time is given to respondents to answer, as these types of interviews do not last for more
than 5 minutes.
• Survey is restricted to people who have telephones.
• Cost plays a major part in extensive geographical coverage.
• It is not suitable for interviews having comprehensive answers to various questions.
• Some extent of interviewer's bias exists.
• Questions have to be short and probes are difficult to handle
DATA COLLECTION
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4) Mail Surveys
• Mail and telephone surveys are a method of collecting information by sending surveys via email or postal mail. Participants
return completed forms to the researcher. Surveys may ask respondents to rate items on a scale .
• Some surveys also allow respondents to write their feelings or attitudes about a particular event or to elaborate in more
detail on an item, or to express suggestions, etc.
Advantages
1. Mail surveys are among the least expensive.
2.This is the only kind of survey you can do if you have the names and addresses of the target population, but not their
telephone numbers.
3.The questionnaire can include pictures - something that is not possible over the phone.
4. Mail surveys allow the respondent to answer at their leisure, rather than at the often inconvenient moment they are
contacted for a phone or personal interview. For this reason, they are not considered as intrusive as other kinds of interviews.
Disadvantages
• Mail surveys take longer than other kinds.You will need to wait several weeks after mailing out questionnaires before you
can be sure that you have gotten most of the responses.
• In populations of lower educational and literacy levels, response rates to mail surveys are often too small to be useful.
DATA COLLECTION
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4. Email Surveys
• Email surveys are both very economical and very fast. More people have email than have full
Internet access.This makes email a better choice than aWeb page survey for some populations.
On the other hand, email surveys are limited to simple questionnaires, whereasWeb page surveys
can include complex logic.
Advantages
1. Speed.An email questionnaire can gather several thousand responses within a day or two.
2.There is practically no cost involved once the set up has been completed.
3.You can attach pictures and sound files.
4.The novelty element of an email survey often stimulates higher response levels than ordinary
“snail” mail surveys.
DATA COLLECTION
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Disadvantages
1.You must possess (or purchase) a list of email addresses.
2. Some people will respond several times or pass questionnaires along to friends to answer. Many
programs have no check to eliminate people responding multiple times to bias the results.The Survey
System’s Email Module will only accept one reply from each address sent the questionnaire. It eliminates
duplicate and pass along questionnaires and checks to ensure that respondents have not ignored
instructions (e.g., giving 2 answers to a question requesting only one).
3. Many people dislike unsolicited email even more than unsolicited regular mail.You may want to send
email questionnaires only to people who expect to get email from you.
4.You cannot use email surveys to generalize findings to the whole populations. People who have email
are different from those who do not, even when matched on demographic characteristics, such as age and
gender.
5. Email surveys cannot automatically skip questions or randomize question or answer choice order or
use other automatic techniques that can enhance surveys the way Web page surveys can.
DATA COLLECTION
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DATA COLLECTION
Some otherTechniques
Warranty cards:Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of
consumer durables to collect information regarding their products.The information sought is printed
in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
2. Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as
manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited
through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on.The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation
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3. Pantry audits: Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at
the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities and
prices of commodities consumed.Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination of
consumer’s pantry.
4. Consumer panels:
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as
• ‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain
• detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on
demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are
interviewed repeatedly over a period of time
DATA COLLECTION
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5. Use of mechanical devices:The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect
information by way of indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer,
Motion picture camera and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly
6. Projective techniques: Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect
interviewing techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists to use
projections of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or intentions which are
such that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. In projective
techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project his own attitudes
or feelings on the subject under study
DATA COLLECTION
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QUESTIONNAIRE
• Questionnaires are data collecting instruments used to ask respondents questions to secure the
desired information. Questionnaires may be administered by mail, over the telephone, by
computer, or in person.
• The design of a questionnaire depends on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory
information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation
of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have
previously been generated).
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The questionnaires can be classified into four types:
1. Structured – non-disguised
2. Structured disguised
3. Non-structured - non- disguised
4. Non-structured – disguised
QUESTIONNAIRE
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QUESTIONNAIRE
steps are involved in the development of a questionnaire
• Choose and decide on the information required
• Define the target respondents
• Selection of methodology to reach the target segment
• Decide on question content
• Decide on type of questions
• Putting questions into a meaningful order and format
• Closing questions
• Physical appearance of the questionnaire
• Pilot studying the questionaire
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2) Define the target respondents
The researcher must define the population that he wishes to collect the data from. Firstly, in
marketing research, researchers often have to decide whether they should cover only existing users
of the generic product type or whether to also include non-users.
Secondly, researchers have to draw up a sampling frame.Thirdly, in designing the questionnaire we
must take into account factors such as the age, education, etc. of the target respondents.
3) Selection of methodology to reach the target segment
This will influence not only the questions the researcher is able to ask but the phrasing of those
questions.The main methods available in survey research are: personal interviews, group or focus
interviews, mailed questionnaires and telephone interviews
Among these, the first two are used more extensively than the second pair.The general rule is that
the more sensitive or personal the information, the more personal the form of data collection
should be.
QUESTIONNAIRE
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4. Decide on question content
For each question in the questionnaire, we should pay attention to how well it addresses the content
we are trying to get at. Deciding what to ask there are three potential types of information:
Information we are primarily interested in that is, dependent variables.
Information which might explain the dependent variables-that is, independent variables.
Other factors related to both dependent and independent factors, which may distort the results and
have to be adjusted for - that is, confounding variables.
5. Decide on type of questions
The questions can be classified into two forms, i.e. closed and open-ended. So In a closed type of question, the
respondent chooses between an alternative already stated. He does not get a chance to answer in a descriptive manner. For
ex.: Do you use Brand X?Yes ________ No________.
In an open-ended question the respondent is asked to give a reply to a question in his/her own words. No answers are
suggested.These responses are explanatory in nature and give some insights from the respondents end. Example: "What do
you like most about this Product?" Open-ended questions have a lot of advantages when used in a questionnaire:
They allow the respondent to answer in his own words, with no influence by any specific alternatives suggested by the
QUESTIONNAIRE

5. Decide on type of questions
The questions can be classified into two forms, i.e. closed and open-ended. So In a closed type of question,
the respondent chooses between an alternative already stated. He does not get a chance to answer in a
descriptive manner. For ex.: Do you use Brand X?Yes ________ No________.
In an open-ended question the respondent is asked to give a reply to a question in his/her own words. No
answers are suggested.These responses are explanatory in nature and give some insights from the respondents
end. Example: "What do you like most about this Product?" Open-ended questions have a lot of advantages
when used in a questionnaire:
They allow the respondent to answer in his own words, with no influence by any specific alternatives suggested
by the interviewer.
They often reveal the issues which are most important to the respondent, and this may reveal findings which
were not originally anticipated when the survey was initiated.
Respondents can 'qualify' their answers or emphasize their opinions.
The inherent problem of an open-ended question is that they must be treated with caution as:
QUESTIONNAIRE
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6. Putting questions into a meaningful order and format
• In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies received, a
researcher must pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire.
• A proper question sequence reduces the chances of the questions being misunderstood
• The question sequence must be clear and smooth- moving, with questions that are easiest to
answer being put in the beginning.
• The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the
attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation.
• Following the opening questions are the question that are rally vital to the research problem
and a connecting thread should run through successive questions.
• Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent
decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have been obtained.
QUESTIONNAIRE
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7. Closing questions
• By the time the respondent comes to the end of the questionnaire it is quite natural for a respondent to become
increasingly indifferent to the questionnaire.This is mainly
• due to impatience or fatigue. He might give careless answers to the later questions. Hence such questions should be
included in the earlier part of the questionnaire. Potentially sensitive questions should be left to the end, to avoid
respondents cutting off the interview before important information is collected.
8. Physical appearance of the questionnaire
The physical appearance of a questionnaire has a significant effect upon both the quantity and quality of marketing data
obtained. Data quality can also be affected by the physical appearance of the questionnaire with unnecessarily confusing
layouts making it more difficult for interviewers, or respondents in the case of self-completion questionnaires, to
complete this task accurately. In general it is best for a questionnaire to be as short as possible.A long questionnaire
leads to a long interview and this may lead to decreasing interest on the part of the respondent.
QUESTIONNAIRE
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Piloting the questionnaires
• Piloting is very much essential to test whether the desired responses are being obtained for the
questions. Many a time, the perception of the respondents varies from those of the researcher.
Hence these issues can be corrected in the initial stage itself so that the research process is
facilitated.
The few respondents selected for the pilot survey should be broadly representative of the type of
respondent to be interviewed in the main survey. If the questionnaire has been subjected to a
thorough pilot test, the research objective is easy to achieve
QUESTIONNAIRE
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SCHEDULE METHOD
A schedule is a device used in collecting field data when survey method is applied. It is used in
direct interviews. It is a proforma containing a set of questions and tables
Contents
of schedule
i) Introductory part
ii) Main schedule
iii) Instructions
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SCHEDULE
Construction of Schedules
Following steps are followed while constructing a schedule
1) The problem under study is defined
2) Framing of actual questions.
3) Arrangement of questions in the proper orders.
4) Pilot survey.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES
1.A schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the field worker. Questionnaires are
sent by post to respondent, to answer as specified in the covering letter.
2. Schedule is relatively more costly. Questionnaire is relatively cheap.
3. In the case of schedule the response is better since the enumerators clear the doubts of the
respondents and get the replies from the respondents at the spot itself. Response to the
questionnaire is poor.
4. In the case of scheduleTime consumption is less.Time consumption is more in case of
questionnaire.
5.Through Schedule Direct personal contact is established with the respondents, In the case of
questionnaire there is no direct personal contact.
6. Schedules can be applied even if the respondents are not literate. Questionnaire can be used only
if the respondents are literates.
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SECONDARY DATA
As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have
already been collected and analyzed by some earlier agency
for its own use, and later the same data are used by a
different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger,“.A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which was gathered by other
authorities and for which others are responsible
Sources Of Secondary Data:
The various sources of secondary data can be divided into
two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources
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SECONDARY DATA
1. Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among them are explained below:
(a) International Bublications
(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
(c) Semi-Official Publication
e) Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions
(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government
(g) Journals and News Papers:
II. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by various government and
private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the universities or institutions etc
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ATTITUDE SCALES
Attitude scales in research measure attitudes towards an issue, they are the most distinctive concept
in modern social psychology.Attitude scales help social psychologists understand the characteristics
of individuals by placing them on a scale that best represent those characteristics. It is a special type of
questionnaire that can measure the intensity as well as direction of peoples attitude towards
something
Characteristic
Attitude scales are used to measure people’s attitude towards a product in market. Products are
often measured using product rating in consumer research.
They are also used for measuring attitude towards an idea that is related to some social issue.
Attitude scales can measure peoples attitude towards an event that happened in past.
It can also measure employee’s job-related satisfaction or performance.
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VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
The concept of appropriateness and accuracy as applied to a research process is called validity.
Broadly, there are two perspectives on validity:
1. Isthe research investigation providing answers to the research questions for which it was
undertaken?
2. 2. If so, is it providing these answers using appropriate methods and procedures?
There are three types of validity in quantitative research:
1. face and content validity;
2. concurrent and predictive validity;
3. construct validity.
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RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
The concept of reliability in relation to a research instrument has a similar meaning: if a research
tool is consistent and stable, hence predictable and accurate, it is said to be reliable.
The greater the degree of consistency and stability in an instrument, the greater its reliability.
Therefore,‘a scale or test is reliable to the extent that repeat measurements made by it under
constant conditions will give the same result’ (Moser & Kalton 1989: 353).
The concept of reliability can be looked at from two sides: 1. How reliable is an instrument? 2. How
unreliable is it?

RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrument
In the social sciences it is impossible to have a research tool which is 100 per cent accurate, not only because a research
instrument cannot be so, but also because it is impossible to control the factors affecting reliability. Some of these factors
are:
The wording of questions – A slight ambiguity in the wording of questions or statements can affect the reliability of a
research instrument as respondents may interpret the questions differently at different times, resulting in different responses
The physical setting – In the case of an instrument being used in an interview, any change in the physical setting at the
time of the repeat interview may affect the responses given by a respondent, which may affect reliability.
The respondent’s mood – A change in a respondent’s mood when responding to questions or writing answers in a
questionnaire can change and may affect the reliability of that instrument.
The interviewer’s mood – As the mood of a respondent could change from one interview to another so could the mood,
motivation and interaction of the interviewer, which could affect the responses given by respondents thereby affecting the
reliability of the research instrument.
The nature of interaction – In an interview situation, the interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee can
affect responses significantly. During the repeat interview the responses given may be different due to a change in interaction,
which could affect reliability.
The regression effect of an instrument – When a research instrument is used to measure attitudes towards an issue,
some respondents, after having expressed their opinion, may feel that they have been either too negative or too positive
towards the issue.The second time they may express their opinion differently, thereby affecting reliability

ATTITUDE SCALES
Types of attitude scales in research
(i) Likert scale
(ii)The Differential/Thurstone scale
(iii)The Scalogram/Guttman scale
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Research methodology unit ii-data collection

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Research methodology unit ii-data collection