Research handouts

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www.drjayeshpatidar.blogspot.com
Research Handouts
Research: An Introduction
Sources of knowledge
•Tradition: accepted as given on the basis of inherited customs
•Authority: comes from people with expertise
•Experience
Trial and error
Intuition
Sources of knowledge
•Logical reasoning: combines, intellectual faculties and formal system of thought
•Disciplined research: the most sophisticated method of acquiring knowledge.
Definitions
•Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Kerlinger, 1973
Definitions
Systematic – follows certain steps
Controlled – every step of the investigation is planned
Empirical – evidence is on hand, there is confidence in the results
Definitions
•Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it
is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or
explanation.
Treece and Treece, 1974
Definitions
•Nursing research is research for nursing. It includes the breadth and depth of the discipline
of nursing: the rehabilitative, therapeutic, and preventive aspects of nursing, as well as the
preparation of practitioners and personnel involved in the total nursing sphere.
Definitions
•Nursing research is defined as a scientific process that validates and refines existing
knowledge and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences nursing
practice.
Burns and Grove, 2005
Purposes of Research
1. Describe
2. Explain
3. Predict
4. Control

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•Describe - involves identifying and understanding the nature of phenomena and sometimes
the relationship among them.
•Explain - It clarifies the relationships among phenomena and identifies the reasons why
certain events occur. It could be the basis for conducting research for prediction and control
•Predict - Through prediction, one can estimate the probability of a specific outcome in a
given situation. However, predicting an outcome does not necessarily enable one to modify or
control the outcome.
•Control - If one can predict the outcome of a situation, the next step is to control or
manipulate the situation to produce the desired outcome.
Nurses do research because…
•Nursing is a profession
•Nursing should contribute to the generation of new knowledge
•Through research, nurses could evaluate and document their contributions to their clients’
health and wellbeing and to the health care delivery system
Cruz-Earnshaw, 2007
Nurses do research because…
•RA 9173 Section 28 (e )states that:
It shall be the duty of the nurse to:
(e) Undertake nursing and health human resource development training and research which
shall include, but not limited to the development of advance nursing practice;
Classifications of Research
•According to level of investigation
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Experimental
•According to approach
1. Experimental
2. Non-experimental
•According to measurement & data analysis
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
•According to time frame
1. Longitudinal
2. Cross sectional
•According to motive or objective
1. Basic research
2. Applied research
•According to time line

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1. Retrospective
2. Prospective
•According to research environment
1. Field
2. Laboratory
Quantitative Research
•Quantitative research is the investigation of phenomena that lend themselves to precise
measurement and quantification, often involving a rigorous and controlled design.
Quantitative Research Methods
•Descriptive – provides an accurate portrayal or account of characteristics of a particular
individual, situation or group.
•Correlational – involves the systematic investigation of relationships/association between
two or more variables
•Comparative – used to describe the differences in variables in two or more groups in a
natural setting
•Quasi-experimental – causal relationships between two selected variables are examined
through manipulation of the independent variable but without control or randomization.
•Experimental – it is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling phenomena. Characteristics include manipulation, control, and
randomization.
•Ex post facto – the independent variable is not manipulated, either because it is inherently
unmanipulable or because it occurred in the past
Qualitative Research
•Qualitative research is the investigation of phenomena typically in an in-depth and holistic
fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design.
Qualitative Research Methods
•Phenomenological – describes an experience as they are lived by people
•Grounded theory – discovers what problems exist in a social scene and the process
persons use to handle them
•Ethnographic – it is associated with anthropology and focuses on the culture of a group of
people, with an effort to understand the world view of those under study.

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•Historical – a narrative description or analysis of events that occurred in the remote or
recent past.
•Philosophical inquiry – involves using intellectual analysis to clarify meanings, makes
values manifest, identify ethics, and study the nature of knowledge
•Case study – involves a thorough, in-depth analysis of an individual, a group, or an
institution or other social units.
•Critical theory – an approach to viewing the world that involves a critique of society, with
the goal of envisioning new possibilities and effecting social change
•Feminist research – seeks to understand, typically through qualitative approaches, how
gender and a gendered social order shape women’s lives and their consciousness.
Mixed Methods Research
•TRIANGULATION – the use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a
phenomenon, so as to converge on an accurate representation of reality
Steps in the Research Process
•Identification of problem
•Review of related literature
•Construction of a framework
•Formulate the hypothesis
•Select the research design
•Select the sample
•Collect the data
•Analyze and interpret the data
•Write the research report
•Communicate the research report
Major Steps: Quantitative Study
•Phase I: The Conceptual Phase
Step 1: Formulating and delimiting the problem
Step 2: Reviewing the related research literature
Step 3: Undertaking clinical fieldwork
Step 4: Defining the framework and conceptual definitions
Step 5: Formulating the hypothesis
•Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase
Step 6: Selecting a research design
Step 7: Developing protocols for intervention
Step 8: Identifying the population to be studied
Step 9: Designing the sampling plan

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Step 10: Specifying methods to measure variables
Step 11: Developing methods to protect human/animal rights
Step 12: Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
Phase III: The Empirical Phase
Step 13: Collecting the data
Step 14: Preparing data for analysis
Phase IV: The Analytic Phase
Step 15: Analyzing the data
Step 16: Interpreting the results
•Phase V: The Dissemination Phase
Step 17: Communicating the findings
Step 18: Utilizing research evidence in practice
Activities: Qualitative Study
Conceptualizing and planning a qualitative study
•Identifying a research problem
•Doing a literature review
•Selecting and gaining entrée into research sites
Designing qualitative studies
Addressing ethical issues
Activities: Qualitative Study
Conducting a qualitative study
•Obtaining and analyzing qualitative data
Disseminating qualitative findings
•Writing qualitative research
What is a research problem?
•A problem is a condition requiring a solution.
•In research, a problem statement is an expression of a dilemma or a disturbing situation that
needs investigation.
Sources of research problems
•Personal experiences and observations
•Readings
•Conversations with peers, experts, clients
Attendance in conferences, lectures
Everyday occurrences
Social and political issues affecting health
Characteristics of a researchable problem
•Interest
•Usefulness
•Novelty
Feasibility of time and resources

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Ethical
Availability of data
Ability of the researcher
Situations manifesting a problem
•Absence of information
•Incomplete information
•Conflicting information
A fact exists and you intend your study to explain it.
There is a gap in knowledge
The research question
•The problem is specifically stated in the form of a research question.
•The research question should be clear, concise, and stated in measurable terms specifically
in quantitative research.
The research question
•Example
What is the level of creativity among senior student nurses of a center of excellence college
in Mehsana in terms of originality and flexibility?
The title
•Functions of a title
1. It draws in summary form, the content of the entire investigation.
2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis.
3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own.
4. It helps the other researchers refer to the work.
The title
•Titles should be clear and specific.
•It should include variables, relationships, target population, and setting.
Ideally, it should have a maximum of 20 substantive words, with function words not
included in the counting.
The title
•Example
The Effects of Home Visits of Public Health Nurses on the Dietary Compliance of Adult
Diabetic Patients in Two Center in Mehsana City
The Variable
•Variable – an attribute of a person or object that varies, that is, takes on different values. It is
anything that is liable to change or likely to vary.
Independent variable – cause
Dependent variable – effect
Extraneous variables – not studied but affects results
The Variable
•Intervening – comes between the dependent and independent variables. Ex. - stress,
anxiety, motivation
•Organismic – those that can not be changed through manipulation. Ex. – age, sex, race
•Confounding or interfering – interfere with the study design and the data gathering process
by influencing the subjects or the dependent variable. Ex. – social support

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The Variable
•Antecedent – occurs earlier than the independent variable and bears a relationship both to it
and to the dependent variable. Ex.- poor health, superstitious beliefs
RANDOMIZATION is the best control over unknown variables.
Significance of the study
•Issues relevant in considering the significance of the study:
1. Implications for nursing practice – Is it able to produce evidence for nursing practice?
2. Extension of knowledge base – Is it able to produce new knowledge which is useful?
Significance of the study
3. Promotion of theory development – Is it able to test or develop a new theory?
4. Correspondence to research priorities – Is it in line with research priorities of the country,
profession, or funding institutions?
Scope and Limitations
•Scope defines where and when the study was conducted and who the participants
(subjects) were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study.
•Limitations – are the weaknesses and shortcomings of the study as acknowledged by the
researcher.
Definition of terms
•Operational definition – description of how variables or concepts will be measured or
manipulated in the study
•Conceptual definition – provides a variable with connotative meaning. It tells what the
concept means.
Assumptions
•An assumption is any fact presumed to be true but not actually verified. It pertains to events
or situations that seem so true that they are taken for granted. Unlike the hypothesis it does
not need testing or confirmation.
Ethics in Research
Basic Rights
•The right to protection from harm and discomfort.
PRINCIPLE: Beneficence – imposes a duty on researchers to minimize harm and to
maximize benefits. A related principle is nonmaleficence (avoid, prevent or minimize harm)
•Right to full disclosure – means that the researcher has fully described the nature of the
study, the subject’s right to refuse participation, the researcher’s responsibilities, and the likely
risks and benefits that would be incurred.
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Debriefing is communication with subjects, generally after their participation has been
completed regarding various aspects of the study.

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Basic Rights
Covert data collection or concealment is the collection of data without the subject’s
knowledge.
Deception can involve either withholding information about the study or providing subjects
with false information.
Basic Rights
Placebo is a medically harmless, ineffective substance that is usually used in testing a new
drug when it is given to a control group. It is done to rule out any possible biases of subjects
and investigators.
Basic Rights
There are two variations in the use of placebo
•Single blind test design: it is one in which the evaluations of the results of a treatment are
kept from the subjects who have received it.
Basic Rights
•Double blind test design: it is one in which the investigators and the subjects involved in
the study are kept ignorant about the process – that is, they are not suppose to know who are
receiving the treatment and who are not
Basic Rights
Right to self determination means that the prospective subjects have the right to voluntarily
decide whether or not to participate in a study, without the risk of imposing any penalties or
prejudicial treatment.
Basic Rights
It includes the right to decide at any point to terminate their participation, to refuse to give
information, or to ask for clarification about the purpose of the study or specific study
procedures
PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity
Basic Rights
Vulnerable subjects or persons with diminished autonomy are those who are less
advantaged because of legal or mental incompetence, terminal illness, or confinement to an
institution.
Basic Rights
The right to full disclosure and the right to self determination are the two major elements on
which informed consent is based
Basic Rights
Informed consent means that the subjects have adequate information regarding the
research; are capable of comprehending the information; and have the power of free choice,
enabling them to voluntarily consent to participate or decline participation in the research
study.
Basic Rights
Informed consent involves the disclosure of the following information: subject status, study
purpose, type of information to be obtained, nature of the commitment, sponsorship, subject
selection, procedures, potential risks, costs, and benefits, confidentiality pledge, voluntary
consent, right to withdraw, alternatives, and contact information.

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Basic Rights
•Informed consent for children is called assent. The study must be explained within the child’s
level of comprehension. Most assents are accompanied by parental consent.
Basic Rights
•Right to fair treatment means that the subjects receive equitable treatment before, during,
and after their participation in the study.
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
•Right to privacy means that researchers need to ensure that their research is not more
intrusive than it needs to be and that the subject’s privacy is maintained throughout the study
PRINCIPLE: Justice
Basic Rights
Anonymity occurs when even the researcher can not link a subject with the information for
that subject. The subjects remain unknown.
Basic Rights
A promise of confidentiality to the subjects is a guarantee that any information that the
subjects provide will not be publicly reported or made accessible to parties other than those
involved in the research.
Literature Review
What is a literature review?
•It is a collection of materials on a topic.
•It discusses published information in a particular subject area sometimes within a certain
time period.
What is a literature review?
•It can be a simple summary of sources but has an organizational pattern and combines both
summary and synthesis.
Summary
•A summary is a recap of the important information found in the literature.
Synthesis
•A synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling of information to:
1. Give a new interpretation of old materials
2. Combine new with old interpretations
3. Trace the intellectual progression of the field including major debates.

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Purpose
•It is conducted to generate a picture of what is known about a particular situation and the
knowledge gaps that exist in it.
Functions
•Source for research ideas
•Orientation to what is already known
•Provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research
•Provides information on research approaches and techniques.
Kinds of literature
•Research literature: refers to published reports of actual research studies done previously
•Conceptual literature consists of articles or books written by authorities giving their
opinions, experiences, theories,or ideas.
Sources for literature review
•A primary source: is the description of an investigation written by the person who
conducted it
•A secondary source: is a description of a study or studies prepared by someone other than
the original researcher
Where can literature be found?
•Journal articles
•Books
•Conference proceedings
•Government and corporate reports
•Newspapers
Where can literature be found?
•Theses and dissertations
•Internet – electronic journals
•CD – ROM
•Magazines
Reading the literatures
•Read the easier articles first
•Scan the article – Read the abstract first.
•Read for depth
•Allow enough time
•Do not put writing off until you have finished reading
•Keep bibliographic information.
Writing the literature review
•The review is not just a list describing one published study after another but rather requires
that the author critically analyze the available literature on the topic.
•The review should be organized into sections that present themes or identified trends.
•Revise…revise…revise

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Framework
Definitions
•A framework is the abstract, logical structure of meaning that guides the development of the
study and enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing's body of knowledge.
•It is the conceptual underpinnings of a study.
Definitions
•Theoretical framework is based on theories.
•Conceptual framework is rooted on specific concepts or conceptual model
•Both provides the structure for examining a problem and serves as a guide to examine
relationships between variables.
The use of a framework
•In quantitative research, the framework is a testable theory that may emerge from a
conceptual model or may be developed inductively from published research or clinical
observations
•In qualitative research, the initial framework is a philosophy or a worldview. A theory
consistent with the philosophy is developed as the outcome of the study.
The use of a framework
•Worldviews are mental lenses or cognitive and perceptual maps that we continually use to
find our way through the social landscape surrounding us.
•They are extremely encompassing in content and pervasive in adherence.
•They are composed of beliefs, belief systems and social values associated with them.
Terminologies
•A concept is a term that abstractly describes and names an object, a phenomenon, or an
idea, thus providing it with a separate identity or meaning.
•Constructs are concepts at very high level of abstraction and have general meaning
•Variables are more concrete and are narrow in their definition.
Terminologies
•A conceptual map is a strategy for expressing a framework. It diagrams the
interrelationships of the concepts and statements.
Hypothesis
Definitions
•The hypothesis is a tentative, declarative statement about the relationship between two or
more variables.
•It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena or events which have occurred
or will occur.
•It is an educated guess which needs to be tested.

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Characteristics
•It should be reasonable.
•It should state in definite terms, the relationship between variables.
•It should be testable.
Sources
•Observations of phenomena
•Real life experiences
•May be generated from relationships expressed in theories.
•Literature review
•Results of previous researches
Types
•Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement of a no relationship, no difference, no effect or no
interaction. It is tested with statistics.
•Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Mehsana.
Types
•Alternative or research hypothesis (H1) is the expectation based on theory. This could
either be:
•Directional – specifies the direction of the relationship.
•Non-directional – only specifies that there is a relationship.
Types
•Examples
•Directional
The higher the nursing admission test results, the higher is the board examination ratings.
•Non-directional
There is a relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila.
Types
•Simple hypothesis has one independent and one dependent variable.
•Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination
ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Mehsana.
Types
•Complex hypothesis has two or more independent and dependent variables
•Example
There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and grade point average to
board examination ratings and CGFNS results among the graduates of nursing schools in
Mehsana.
Wording the hypothesis
•Hypothesis should specify the independent and dependent variables and the relationship
between them.

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•Hypothesis should be worded in the present tense
•Hypothesis should be stated declaratively.
Remember
•Hypotheses are never proved through hypothesis testing rather they are accepted or
supported or rejected. Findings are always tentative. If results are replicated in numerous
investigations, greater confidence can be placed in the conclusions.
Hypotheses come to be supported with mounting evidences.
Research Designs
Definitions
•Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of an investigation.
•Research method is the totality of how the study is carried out. It includes the design,
sample, setting, instruments, interventions, procedures, and data analysis.
Interrelationship: Design, Problem, Literature Review, Framework, and Hypothesis
Quantitative Designs
•A descriptive design is used to identify a phenomenon of interest, identify variables within
the phenomenon, event or group in real life situations for the purpose of discovering new
meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and
categorizing information.
Quantitative Descriptive
•Survey designs are employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into
why it exists. The main intention is to use the data for problem solving rather than for
hypothesis testing.
•Correlational designs help one determine the extent to which different variables are related
to each other in the population of interest. The critical distinguishing characteristic is the effort
to estimate a relationship as distinguished from simple description.
•Comparative designs examine and describe differences in variables in two or more groups
that occur naturally in the setting. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are used to
examine differences between or among groups.
•Time dimensional designs were developed within the discipline of epidemiology where the
occurrence and distribution of disease among populations are studied. These designs
examine sequences and patterns of change, growth or change over time. The dimension of
time becomes an important factor.
•Longitudinal designs examine changes in the same subjects over an extended period.

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•Cross sectional designs are used to examine groups of subjects in various stages of
development simultaneously with the intent to describe changes in the phenomenon across
stages.
•Primary longitudinal designs
1. Trend studies: the general population is studied at different points over a long period of
time. Participants are not the same at each period but they are representative of the
population at that time.
2. Cohort studies: focus on the same specific population each time data are collected,
samples may be composed of different subjects but with similar characteristics.
3. Panel studies: use the same respondents for each progressive time period that the data
are collected.
Characteristics of a True Experiment
•Manipulation: the researcher manipulates i.e. provides intervention or treatment in the
experimental group. The independent variable is manipulated to assess its effect on the
dependent variable.
•Control: imposing of rules by the researcher to decrease the possibility of error and increase
the probability that the study’s findings are an accurate reflection of reality.
•Ways of control:
1. Homogenecity: the researcher limits the subjects to only one level of extraneous variable
to reduce the impact on study findings
2. Blocking: including the extraneous variable as part of the design
3. Matching: it is used when a subject in the experimental group is randomly selected and
then a subject similar in relation to important extraneous variables is randomly selected for
the control group.
•Randomization: each individual in the population should have a greater than zero
opportunity to be selected for the sample. Random assignment is the assignment of subjects
to treatment conditions in a manner determined by chance.
Quantitative Experimental
•Pre-experimental design is a research design that does not include mechanisms to
compensate for the absence of either randomization or a control group. Done as a preliminary
study.
Designs: Pre-experimental
•One shot case study
•Notation
X O
•Where:
X – Treatment/intervention
O - Posttest

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•Posttest only design with comparison group
•Notation
Experimental group X O1
Control group O2
•One-Group Pretest Posttest Design
• Notation:
O1 X O2
•Where:
O1 – Pretest
X - Treatment/Intervention
O2 - Posttest
•Static Group Comparison
• Notation:
X O1
------------------
O2
Where:
X – Treatment/Intervention
O1 – Experimental posttest
O2 – Control posttest
---- - Non-random selection
•True experimental designs possess the characteristics of a true experiment.
True Experimental Designs
•Pretest Posttest Control Group Design or Classical Experimental Design
•Notation:
R S O1 X O2
____________________
R C O3 O4
•Where:
R – Random assignment
O1 – Experimental pretest
O2 - Experimental posttest
O3 – Control pretest
O4 – Control posttest
X - Treatment/Intervention
S – Study group
C – Control group
•Solomon Four Group Design
•Notation:
R S O1 X O2

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R C O3 O4
R S X O5
R C O6
•Quasi-experimental designs are studies involving an intervention in which subjects are not
randomly assigned to treatment conditions but the researcher exercises controls to enhance
the study’s internal validity.
Quasi-experimental Designs
•Time series experiment
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
•Non-equivalent control group design
O1 X O2
---------------------
O3 O4
Threats to Experimental Validity
•Internal validity: refers to the condition that the observed differences on the dependent
variable are a direct result of the manipulation of the independent variable, not some other
variable
•Threats to internal validity
History effect: an event that is not related to the planned study but occurs during the time of
the study and could influence the responses of subjects to the treatment
Selection threat is more likely to occur in studies in which randomization is not possible
Maturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more
experienced during the study. Unplanned and unrecognized changes can influence the
findings of the study.
Mortality is due to subjects who drop out of a study before completion
•External validity refers to the condition wherein the results are generalizable or applicable
to groups and environments outside of the experimental setting
Epidemiological Designs
•Two broad classifications
1. Observational studies – examine associations between risk factors and outcomes
2. Intervention studies – explore the association between interventions and outcomes
•Observational studies
1. Analytical – determinants and risk of disease
2. Descriptive – patterns and frequency of disease
•Intervention or experimental studies - provides the strongest clinical evidence.
1.) Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (RCT) - A prospective, analytical, experimental
study using primary data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals similar at the

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beginning are randomly allocated to two or more treatment groups and the outcomes the
groups are compared after sufficient follow-up time. Properly executed, the RCT is the
strongest evidence of the clinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic procedures in the
clinical setting.
2. Randomized Cross-Over Clinical Trial - A prospective, analytical, experimental study
using primary data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals with a chronic condition
are randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatment period
and often a washout period, are switched to the other treatment for the same period.
3. Randomized Controlled Laboratory Study - A prospective, analytical, experimental
study using primary data generated in the laboratory environment. Laboratory studies are
very powerful tools for doing basic research because all extraneous factors other than those
of interest can be controlled or accounted for (e.g., age, gender, genetics, nutrition,
environment, co-morbidity, strain of infectious agent)
Observational studies
1. Cohort (Incidence, Longitudinal Study) - A prospective, analytical, observational
study, based on data, usually primary, from a follow-up period of a group in which some have
had, have or will have the exposure of interest, to determine the association between that
exposure and an outcome.
2. Case-Control Study - A retrospective, analytical, observational study often based on
secondary data in which the proportion of cases with a potential risk factor are compared to
the proportion of controls (individuals without the disease) with the same risk factor. The
common association measure for a case-control study is the odds ratio.
3. Ecologic (Aggregate) Study - An observational analytical study based on aggregated
secondary data. Aggregate data on risk factors and disease prevalence from different
population groups is compared to identify associations.
4. Cross-Sectional (Prevalence Study) Study - A descriptive study of the relationship
between diseases and other factors at one point in time (usually) in a defined population
5. Case Series - A descriptive, observational study of a series of cases, typically describing
the manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of a condition.
6. Case Report - Anecdotal evidence. A description of a single case, typically describing the
manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of that case.
Qualitative Designs
•Qualitative designs uses systematic, interactive approach which is used to describe life
experiences and give them meaning.
Qualitative Phenomenology
•Phenomenological design is used to describe experiences as they are lived
•Bracketing is the suspension of the researcher’s preconceptions, prejudices and beliefs so
that they do not interfere with or influences their description of the respondent’s experience.
Qualitative Grounded Theory
•Grounded theory provides a way to transcend experience – to move it from a description of
what is happening to understanding the process by which it happens.

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Qualitative Ethnographic
•Ethnographic design provides a mechanism for studying our own culture and that of
others.
Qualitative Historical
•Historical design is the systematic collection and critical evaluation of data relating to past
occurrences.
External criticism: authenticity and genuiness of data
Internal criticism: worthiness or truthfulness of data
Qualitative Philosophical Inquiry
•Philosophical inquiry considers an idea or an issue from all perspectives by extensively
exploring the literature, examining conceptual meaning, raising questions, providing answers,
and suggesting the implications of those answers.
Qualitative Critical Social Theory
•Critical social theory dares to question the unquestioned and uncovers injustice and
inequity in the society.
Qualitative Feminist Research
• Feminist research is based on the premise that gender is a central construct in a society
that privileges men and marginalizes women. It seeks to equalize power relations by using a
broad range of methodologies.
Case Study
•Involves an extensive exploration of a single unit of study, such as a person, family, group,
community, or institution, or a very small number of subjects who are examined intensively.
It may have both quantitative and qualitative elements.
Used for rare, interesting, or representative cases
Triangulation
•It is the combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources, investigators, or
analysis methods in the study of the same phenomenon.
Remember
The KEY in choosing the research design
The best research design is the one that is most appropriate for the problem and the purpose
of the study.
Sample
Definitions
•Sampling involves selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements with
which to conduct a study.
•Sampling plan defines the process of making the selection.
•Sample defines the selected group of people or elements.
•Population or target population is the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the
sampling criteria.

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Definitions
•Sampling criteria list the characteristics essential for membership in the target population.
•Accessible population is the portion of the target population to which the researcher has
reasonable access.
•Elements are the entities that make up the sample or the population
Definitions
•Sampling frame is a list of all cases, objects, or groups of cases in the populations.
•Generalizing means that the findings can be applied to the population.
•Representativeness means that the sample must be like the population in as many ways as
possible.
Categories of Sampling Plans
•Probability sampling: a process in which each element of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen for the sample. There is randomization.
•Non-probability sampling: elements are selected by non-random methods
Sample Size
RULE: The larger the sample, the more representative of the population.
•Minimum acceptable sample size
1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population
2. Correlational: 30 subjects
3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects
4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per group
Gay and Diehl,1992
Sample Size
•Slovin’s Formula
n = N
1 + Ne2
Where: n = sample size
N = population
e = desired margin of error
( 0.05 or 0.01 )
Probability Techniques
•Simple random: sampling by chance either by lottery or by the use of table of random
numbers
•Stratified random: involves taking certain areas of the population, dividing the areas into
sections, and then taking a random sample from each section.
•Systematic sampling: every nth name from a roster of names can be taken as sample.
K = N/n
Where: K = sampling interval
N = population
n = sample size

Nursing Path
•Cluster sampling: sampling in groups
•Multi-stage sampling: used for extremely large populations. It proceeds through a set of
stages from larger to smaller sampling units.
Non-probability Techniques
•Purposive or judgmental: subjects are hand picked to be included in the sample, based
upon the researcher’s knowledge of the population.
•Quota sampling: researchers identify strata of the population and then determine how many
participants are needed from each stratum to meet a quota.
•Accidental, convenience, incidental: utilizes readily available subjects
•Snowball or network: subjects act as informants who identify others for inclusion in the
sample who in turn leads to more samples
Steps in Sampling
•General outline of procedures
1. Identify the target population
2. Identify the accessible population
3. Decide the sample size and how the sample will be taken.
4. Recruit subjects according to the designated plan.
5. Obtain the subject’s cooperation.
N.B. The steps may vary from one sampling design to another
Qualitative sampling
•Sample size is not predetermined in qualitative research
•Saturation: is the point in data gathering where no new data emerge therefore sampling is
stopped. There is data repetition.
Data Collection
Goal and Purpose
• Goal – to collect data that are meaningful for the purpose of the study
• Meaningful data depend on the quality of the instrument employed in the process
• No amount of sophisticated statistics can salvage a poor set of data gathered through
defective instruments.
Questionnaire
• Questionnaire: a paper and pencil instrument completed by the study subjects
• Formats
1. Checklist
2. Multiple Choice
3. Rating Scales: list an ordered series of categories of a variable assumed to be based on
an underlying continuum.
A numerical value is assigned to each category.
Questionnaire Formats
• Checklist

Nursing Path
• Multiple Choice
• Rating Scale and Ranking Type
Interview
• Interview involves verbal communication between the researcher and the subject
• Interview structure is the amount of direction and restriction imposed by the interview
situation
Interview Types
• Structured: the interviewer has a list of prepared questions in the form of an interview
schedule
• Unstructured interview: more like a conversation. The interviewer uses an interview
guide
Interview Tools
Observation
• Observation: involves looking at the phenomenon
• Used to study human behavior
• Hawthorne effect: is the effect on the dependent variable caused by the subject’s
awareness that they are participants in a study
Types of Observation
• Structured observation is one in which aspects of the phenomenon to be observed
are decided in advance
• Unstructured observation is a nonselective description of the phenomenon to be
observed
Types of Observation
• Participant observation is done when the researcher is involved in the setting with the
subject
• Non-participant observation is when the researcher is merely viewing the situation
Records
• Records are prepared and preexisting data
• Selective deposit and selective survival are the two major sources of bias.
• Records available for use may not constitute the entire set of all possible data.
Physiologic Measurement
• Physiologic measurements are techniques used to measure physiologic variables
either directly or indirectly. This is also called biophysiologic measures
• Used in clinical nursing studies
• The choice of the physiologic measure is dependent upon its ability to yield good
information.
Physiologic Measurement
Criteria for effective question
• Clarity of language
• Specificity of content and time period
• Singleness of purpose
• Freedom from assumption
• Freedom from suggestion
• Linguistic completeness

Nursing Path
• Grammatical consistency
Types of questions
• Closed ended: respondents answer a number of alternative responses
1. Dichotomous: two response alternative
2. Multichotomous: multiple responses
• Open ended: respondents are given enough flexibility to answer questions or specify
answers other than those found in the questionnaire
Characteristics of tools
• Validity refers to the ability of a data gathering instrument to measure what it is
supposed to measure and to obtain data relevant to what is being measured.
• Reliability refers to the ability to obtain consistent results when reused.
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Data Analysis
•Data analysis is the systematic organization and synthesis of research data and, in most
quantitative studies, the testing of the hypotheses using those data.
Quantitative Analysis
•The manipulation of numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of
describing phenomenon or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among
them.
•Purposes of statistics
Summarize
Organize
Evaluate
Numeric
Interpret
Information
Communicate
•Factors to consider in choosing the appropriate statistical test
1. Purpose of the study
2. Research questions
3. Number and measure of variables
4. Sampling technique and sample size
5. Availability of statistical software
6. Ability of the researcher
•Branches of statistics
1. Descriptive statistics used to describe and synthesize data obtained from empirical
observations and measurements.

Nursing Path
2. Inferential statistics: it is concerned with making decisions about a large body of data in
the population of interest by using a sample of that universe.
•A set of data can be summarized in terms of 3 characteristics
1. Shape of distribution
2. Central tendency
3. Variability
QUAN - Shape of distribution
•Frequency distribution is a systematic arrangement of numerical values from the lowest to
the highest, together with a count of the number of times each value was obtained.
•A frequency distribution can be obtained graphically by means of a frequency polygon
•Scores in a pilot survey on patient satisfaction
1 4 3 4
3 3 2 2
5 1 3 2
2 3 4 3
1 = Very dissatisfied 4 = Satisfied
2 = Dissatisfied 5 = Very Satisfied
3 = A little satisfied
•Frequency distribution
Frequency Table
_________________________________
Score Frequency (f) Percentage
1 2 12.50%
2 4 25.00%
3 6 37.50%
4 3 18.75%
5 1 6.25%
n = 16 100%
•Frequency polygon
•A distribution is said to be symmetrical in shape if when folded over, the two halves of a
frequency polygon would be superimposed.
Shape: Symmetrical Distributions
Shape: Symmetrical Distributions
Shape: Asymmetrical Distributions
Positively Skewed: Tail points to the right

Nursing Path
•Example – Positively skewed distribution
Personal income – most people have low to moderate income with very few at the tail end.
The mean is larger than the median because there are so many low scores.
Negatively skewed: Tail points to the left
•Example – Negatively skewed distribution
Age at death – most people die when they are old, few die when they are young. The bulk
of the people are at the upper end of the distribution. The median is larger than the mean
because there are so many high scores.
Shape: Kurtosis
•Kurtosis explains the degree of peakedness of the curve, which is related to the spread of
variance of scores.
•Extreme kurtosis can affect the validity of statistical analysis because the scores have little
variation
Shape: Kurtosis
QUAN – Central Tendency
•Mode – that numerical value in a distribution that occurs most frequently
•Median – that point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of the subjects fall
•Mean – the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of scores divided by the number
of scores. It is also known as average.
QUAN – Variability
•Standard deviation (SD) captures the degree to which the scores deviate from one another.
The SD tells us how much on the average the scores deviate from the mean. It also tells us
the homogenecity or heterogenecity of the group.
•Range is the highest score minus the lowest score.
QUAN – Measurement levels
•Nominal – lowest level; name categories; assignment of numbers to simply classify
characteristics into categories
•Ordinal – attributes are ordered or ranked according to some criterion
•Interval The distance between
0 ≠ 0 any 2 numbers on the
•Ratio – Highest scale are
0 = 0 of known and
equal size
Qualitative Analysis
•Qualitative analysis is the organization and interpretation of non-numerical data for the
purpose of discovering important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationships
Data analysis components
•Categories are underlying regularities, concepts, and clusters of concepts.
•Themes develop within categories of data. They emerge from the data. A theme is an
abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to experiences and its variant manifestations.
It captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.
Qualitative Analysis Process

Nursing Path
•Comprehending – making sense of the data and learning “what is going on” and preparing
a thorough description of the phenomenon.
•Synthesizing – involves sifting of the data and putting pieces together. Researchers get a
sense of what is typical with regard to the phenomenon and what variation is like.
•Theorizing – involves a systematic sorting of the data. Researchers develop alternative
explanations of the phenomenon and then hold these explanations up to determine their fit
with the data.
•Recontextualizing – involves the further development of the theory such that its applicability
to other settings or groups is explored.
Writing the Research Report
Purpose in writing the report
•To communicate in writing: the problem investigated, the methods used, the findings
generated, the interpretation of results, the integration with the theory, what conclusions have
been drawn at the end, and how the findings relate to past research.
Writing the introduction and problem
•Go directly into what the problem is investigating.
•State the rationale.
•Include key previous researches to strengthen the reason for the investigation.
•Include the significance,scope and limitations, & definition of terms.
Writing the literature review
•Include conflicting viewpoints of various authors.
•State how each literature relates to the topic under investigation.
•Put together references saying the same thing.
•Learn to choose ONLY relevant literature.
Writing the methodology
•Include the research design and the justification of why it was chosen.
•Present the population and the sampling design, setting, and sample size.
•Describe the tool used together with the validity and reliability testing.
•Discuss how the data was analyzed.
Writing the results & discussion
•Present results in a logical order with the research question as guide.
•Use tables, figures, and other devises to maximize the lucidity of the presentation.
•Text should be followed by tables.
•Consistency in style should be followed in writing the discussion.
•RESULTS are data bound: DISCUSSION is data based
Writing the summary
•The summary puts together the highlights of the important findings of the investigation.

Nursing Path
•Look back at the questions and tie them up with the main findings.
•Do not write everything in the findings in the summary.
Writing the conclusions
•REMEMBER: the conclusion is an abstraction drawn from the summary of findings and is
tied from the question investigated.
Writing recommendations
•Recommendations should have a logical link with the data and the conclusions.
•Recommendations are geared towards: education, practice, future research, population or
institution if applicable.
Characteristics of scientific writing
•Simplicity
•Conciseness
•Straight forwardness
•Consistency in the use of terms
•Continuity through transitional sentences
•Accuracy
•Parsimony
Communicating Research
Communicating research
•Communicating research findings, the final step in the research process, involves
developing a research report and disseminating it through presentations and publications to
audiences of nurses, health care professionals, policy makers, and health consumers.
Advantages
•Researchers are able to advance the knowledge of a discipline.
•Researchers receive personal recognition and professional advancement
•It promotes critique and replication
•It helps identify additional problems
•Promotes the use of research findings in practice
•Avenues for communicating research
•Publication in journals including on-line journals
•Oral presentation in conferences
•Poster presentation in conferences
•Publication in conference proceedings
•Publication in other sources e.g. books, newspapers, magazines
Thank You
Dr. Jayesh V. Patidar
Email: nursingpath31@gmail.com

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