All the energy that humans use comes directly or indirectly from the sun. In the
beginning, humans used their own strength, which came from their food. That was the
only energy source for hundreds of thousands of years, until fire was discovered
350,000 years ago, burning wood as fuel. They had discovered the biomass as energy
source.
Economic and Optimization Study of an Hybrid Solar-Diesel System for A Coaste...paperpublications3
Abstract: Photovoltaic power system has become most acceptable renewable energy system for rural areas that do not have access to grid system. This system was designed to supply electricity to Akodo which does not have access to the national grid network of power supply in Nigeria. Akodo, a community in Ibeju Lekki Local Government Area of Lagos State, which is made up of about 150 houses and requires about 89KW load which can be supply conveniently by the solar diesel system, is found to be more appropriate in this research work. The initial cost seemed to be on the high side, but on the long run the maintenance of the system which was very minute accorded the system significant advantage. It is now economical to embark on this research work which would be found to be highly beneficial.
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources which are replenished
such as wind, wave, solar, biomass and tidal power. Governments and companies around the
world are investing heavily in developing technologies to harness the power of clean
renewable energy sources because of their potential to produce large quantities of energy
without generating greenhouse gases which can contribute to climate change. Most of the
power generation in India is carried out by conventional energy sources, coal and mineral oilbased
power plants which contribute heavily to greenhouse gases emission.
Renewable energy sources consist of solar, hydro, wind, geothermal, ocean and
biomass. The most common advantage of each is that they are renewable and cannot be
depleted. They are a clean energy, as they don't pollute the air, and they don't contribute to
global warming effects. Since their sources are natural the cost of operations is reduced and
they also require less maintenance on their plants.
Economic and Optimization Study of an Hybrid Solar-Diesel System for A Coaste...paperpublications3
Abstract: Photovoltaic power system has become most acceptable renewable energy system for rural areas that do not have access to grid system. This system was designed to supply electricity to Akodo which does not have access to the national grid network of power supply in Nigeria. Akodo, a community in Ibeju Lekki Local Government Area of Lagos State, which is made up of about 150 houses and requires about 89KW load which can be supply conveniently by the solar diesel system, is found to be more appropriate in this research work. The initial cost seemed to be on the high side, but on the long run the maintenance of the system which was very minute accorded the system significant advantage. It is now economical to embark on this research work which would be found to be highly beneficial.
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources which are replenished
such as wind, wave, solar, biomass and tidal power. Governments and companies around the
world are investing heavily in developing technologies to harness the power of clean
renewable energy sources because of their potential to produce large quantities of energy
without generating greenhouse gases which can contribute to climate change. Most of the
power generation in India is carried out by conventional energy sources, coal and mineral oilbased
power plants which contribute heavily to greenhouse gases emission.
Renewable energy sources consist of solar, hydro, wind, geothermal, ocean and
biomass. The most common advantage of each is that they are renewable and cannot be
depleted. They are a clean energy, as they don't pollute the air, and they don't contribute to
global warming effects. Since their sources are natural the cost of operations is reduced and
they also require less maintenance on their plants.
This report on “Solar PV Sector in India: Challenges & Way ahead”, prepared by Tata Strategic Management Group, has a holistic view on the current state of solar sector in India. The key focus of the report is on identifying key challenges faced by different stakeholders in the Indian market and how a collaborative effort in the right direction could ensure the growth of the sector to realize its true potential
The Importance of Renewable Energy Sources in PakistanUmair Shahzad
Pakistan has been facing acute energy crisis since last numerous years. The demand for energy is increasing rapidly in Pakistan. Energy is one of the most vital development priorities of Pakistan. The economy of Pakistan is mainly reliant on the electricity being produced by coal, oil, and natural gas. The total energy produced only makes up for a part of the total energy consumption. On the contrary, Pakistan possesses a huge potential for renewable energy sources like wind, solar, hydropower and biomass. Proper development and implementation of these alternative energy technologies can bring many benefits to the country in terms of energy, economy, environment and national security. Therefore, the key aim of this paper is to present the current energy situation and potential of renewable energy sources in Pakistan and link these factors with economy and business priorities.
This chapter is an exract from my final dissretation on 'Environmental effects of shipping imports from China and their economic valutaion. The case of valve components in aluminium, iron and steeel'.
This report on “Solar PV Sector in India: Challenges & Way ahead”, prepared by Tata Strategic Management Group, has a holistic view on the current state of solar sector in India. The key focus of the report is on identifying key challenges faced by different stakeholders in the Indian market and how a collaborative effort in the right direction could ensure the growth of the sector to realize its true potential
The Importance of Renewable Energy Sources in PakistanUmair Shahzad
Pakistan has been facing acute energy crisis since last numerous years. The demand for energy is increasing rapidly in Pakistan. Energy is one of the most vital development priorities of Pakistan. The economy of Pakistan is mainly reliant on the electricity being produced by coal, oil, and natural gas. The total energy produced only makes up for a part of the total energy consumption. On the contrary, Pakistan possesses a huge potential for renewable energy sources like wind, solar, hydropower and biomass. Proper development and implementation of these alternative energy technologies can bring many benefits to the country in terms of energy, economy, environment and national security. Therefore, the key aim of this paper is to present the current energy situation and potential of renewable energy sources in Pakistan and link these factors with economy and business priorities.
This chapter is an exract from my final dissretation on 'Environmental effects of shipping imports from China and their economic valutaion. The case of valve components in aluminium, iron and steeel'.
The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis cannot be accepted as a general
rule either for the Spanish case or for other developed or developing countries.
Economic growth alone, far from being the solution to environmental problems, is
causing an increase in resource use and pollution. The consequences of inaction can be dramatic. Solutions to curve this threatening path are available, but they need to be urgently implemented.
The objective of this study is to provide the reader with a critical appraisal of the Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy (SSDS), for which the Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy (EUSDS) is also analysed in the fields where it is relevant to the former.
Following the background and the concept of sustainable development (SD) analysis in the SSDS, the fundamental assumption that economic growth is an imperative is extensively analysed, arguing that it is not feasible as a paradigm. Next, each of the seven priority areas and the Spanish performance in them are briefly referred
and appraised, with a higher emphasis in the “climate change (CC) and clean energies”, due to the strong specific weight in the SSDS that the previous section gives to it. A comment about the indicators used to monitor the evolution of the SSDS is given before the final conclusions.
This document focuses on national packaging waste management policies, and some opportunities for improvement that international benchmarking offers to the UK. It joins together the policies that affect the two basic sides of the life of packaging waste: packaging generation by industries, and its final destiny as decided by households.
After an introduction showing the importance of waste prevention over the rest of the possible strategies to reduce waste (section 1), and a discussion about the convenience of recycling (section 2), two benchmarks are presented, under the domestic and the industrial perspectives respectively.
For each of the perspectives, both the UK’s and an alternative scheme are widely introduced (sections 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2), and the latter comparisons between them (sections 3.3, 4.3) arrive to the conclusion that the alternative benchmarks can help the UK reach a higher level of waste prevention.
The benchmark of pay-as-you-throw schemes refers a domestic perspective of the waste problem. It shows that a better performance is achievable though its adoption, although attention must be paid to British people’s idiosyncrasy. From the business side, the German Packaging
Ordinance implies a higher degree of compliance with the extended producer responsibility than UK’s Producer Responsibility Obligations.
Renewable energy is generally electricity supplied from sources, such as wind power, solar power,
geothermal energy, hydro power and various forms of biomass. The popularity of renewable energy
has experienced a significant upsurge in recent times due to the exhaustion of conventional power
generation methods and increasing realization of its adverse effects on the environment. Wind energy
has been harnessed for centuries but it has only emerged as a major part of our energy solution quite
recently and this report focus on utilizing wind energy by using vertical axis wind turbine.
The Future of Alternate Energy in India: The World War-III Begins Manu Srinath
Mankind has already seen two World Wars. The Nations which emerged victorious in the last one are today the so-called Developed Nations and others are forced to have a 'subordinate' tag and they are called the Third World.
But now it's time for the next one and this is not a Tennis tournment to have seedings to save the Mighty Neck of the First World. No head-starts.
No Offence to Late PM Rajiv Gandhi of India when he said " Information Technology will be the base for the Third Word War". But we, a group of NLUO-ites believe that the fight is for the dominance in Alternate Energy and those who lag behind, will be behind others forever.
The Real Bloodshed is yet to begin.... and Ideas and War Strategies??!!.... dnt worry... we are there!
- A National Law University Orissa Presentation
Grid connected PV systems and their growth in power systemijtsrd
Uneconomical extension of the grid has led to generation of electric power at the end user facility and has been proved to be cost effective and to an extent efficient. With augmented significance on eco-friendly technologies the use of renewable energy sources such as micro-hydro, wind, solar, biomass and biogas is being explored. This paper presents an addresses the potential impacts of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) systems on electrical networks. The paper starts by emphasizing the increased importance of generating electricity from PV arrays. The growth in PV installed capacity worldwide is elaborated; futuristic expansion plans for several countries as well as existing PV projects worldwide are highlighted. The paper continues by evaluating the most important impacts of PV electricity on electrical networks. Finally, the authors summarize the literatures findings regarding the maximum allowable PV penetration that can be safely integrated into existing networks. Javeed Ahmad Khan"Grid connected PV systems and their growth in power system" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd11646.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/11646/grid-connected-pv-systems-and-their-growth-in-power-system/javeed-ahmad-khan
THIS REPORT IS BASED ON THE GREEN ENERGY ELECTRIC POWER CONVERTER AND THIS REPORT IS PREPARED ON THE BASE OF FORMAT WHICH IS STANDARD AND THIS REPORT ALSO CONTAINS DIFFERENT ENERGY SOURCES WHICH IS RENEWABLE SOURCES SO THIS USEFUL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
In the past two years, Iran\'s electricity consumption has been increased with an average of 7% over the years. So, as for the Iran’s development programs, it is predicted that this trend continues to rise. On the other hand, despite the widespread development of resources, climatic conditions and restrictions in hydro-electric has caused to decrease the share of electricity generation from dams and water resources within the past 40 years more than 25% to less than 4% and the increasing of country\'s electricity production dependency to power plant steam and gas or compound cycle. also coal resources is limited in our country and cannot be used to electric power generation, thus production of electricity in power plants nationwide compared to global average depends on the hydrocarbon fuel. Primary hydrocarbon energy conversion process to electricity is relatively low and negative environmental impacts, so It seems, turning to nuclear power generation, an inevitable and mentioned plans for country\'s future power supply, and stop this process will damage the country\'s economic development.
THE FUTURE OF ENERGY REQUIRED FOR THE WORLD.pdfFaga1939
This article aims to present what the future would require for the production and consumption of energy in the world based on the use of clean and renewable energy. To avoid the catastrophic future that is predicted for humanity resulting from global warming, it is imperative, among other measures, to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by replacing the current global energy matrix based fundamentally on fossil fuels (coal , oil and natural gas) and in nuclear energy, by another global energy matrix structured based on renewable energy resources (hydroelectricity, biomass, solar energy, wind energy and hydrogen) to avoid or minimize global warming and, consequently, the occurrence of catastrophic changes in the Earth's climate. Regardless of the various solutions that may be adopted to eliminate or mitigate the causes of the greenhouse effect, the most important action is, without a doubt, the adoption of measures that contribute to the elimination or reduction of the consumption of fossil fuels in energy production, as well as such as the more efficient use of energy in transport, industry, agriculture and cities (residences and commerce), given that the use and production of energy are responsible for 57% of greenhouse gases emitted by human activity. In this sense, the implementation of a sustainable energy system is essential. A sustainable energy system will only be possible if, in addition to abandoning fossil fuels, energy efficiency is also greatly improved.
The solar energy revolution that began sweep the world a few years ago seems to have stalled, caught up in political games between the industrialised nations and China. However, the future remains bright as the sun is expected to shine again.
Rajendra Shende was invited to write an article on the occasion of OECD Forum of May 2013 about recent ups and downs of the progress and prospects of PV modules and panels in context of its falling prices. Read the article that was published in special issue published at the time of OECD Forum: “Partial Eclipse”
Solar Power Sustainability - Professional Development Course for EngineersMarianneSalama
This professional development course on the sustainability of photovoltaic solar power examines its energy payback time, emissions, land usage and recycling potential.
Take the full course at www.ipolytek.com
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EL AGUA EN EL DEBATE SOBRE EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO: LA IMPORTANCIA DEL AGUA EN LA...Alejo Etchart Ortiz
Esta presentación versa sobre la importancia que se está dando al agua en las negociaciones para el COP15 a celebrar en Copenhague en diciembre 2009. Lo enfocaré desde el punto de vista del GPPN como actor de peso en el proceso. GPPN son las siglas en inglés de la Red de Políticas Públicas para la Gestión del Agua.
“Sustainable Development” (SD) is an expression frequently used by ecologists,
media and politicians, but it does not always carry the same concise meaning. The EEA
(1998) stated in 1998 that over 300 definitions of SD had been given, many of them inappropriate, as the outcome of different visions, values scales, interests and
ideologies. In this way, SD becomes a non-operative ‘chewing gum concept’ that
everybody can adapt in his own convenience (Bermejo, 2005, p.24)
The Brundtland Report (1987) states the most widely accepted definition of SD as
“the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs”. The worldwide commitment on the
acceptance of this definition constitutes a milestone in itself.
The UK has outstanding possibilities of contributing to climate change (CC)
through wind renewable energy technology (RET). Further development is expected from
geothermal source heat pumps (GSHP), biomass, hydroelectric and passive solar design`RETs. The UK has a limited quantity of resource for solar power. Hydrogen RET
possibilities are still unknown.
Ashton Green (AG) and London are examples of rural and urban developments
respectively renewable energy (RE) developments. Both approaches depend on the availability of resources in-site. AG approach bears the economics more than London, which targets to be in the vanguard of RETs development.
Technology has evolved significantly since AG project was started. This can lead to
a review of the technologies to be implemented. London, on its side, may consider the possibility of settling an Energy Service Company (ESCO) to serve the city as energy service provider.
Little research has been done into the actual motives underlying the local opposition found in British local communities against renewable energy schemes to be settled in their areas. Further research on the issue
would be helpful for the UK to meet their target share in the battle against climate change.
This work compiles, in a structured way, existing literature about the basic concepts of social networks and communities to be taken on for that research. It outlines the importance of communities’ involvement in
developments, and gives a range of successful cases where communities and developers have provided each other with a range of different benefits. Some lessons from the past are presented that can help
developers to assume proper methods and models for involving communities, as well as to prevent mistakes from being repeated. The document ends with some possibilities for the Government to further encourage community involvement.
Gardner and Stern (2002) compile the critical environmental problems that the world is challenging, and reflect that even though it is recognized that those problems are caused by humans, the use of the human
behaviour science is not habitually used to tackle them.
For Stern (2000, p.408) an environmentally significant behaviour (ESB) can be defined by the extent to which it impacts the environment. The ‘Conservation Psychology’ studies the ESBs, having in mind the
physical and social context within which they are made (DMU, 2007a).
The three ESBs that this study presents have been chosen in order to show a range of theories to explain ESBs. In each case, a first sub-section comments the ESB, classifies it and gives factors on which they may be based; and a second part explains different theories’ approaches to explain those ESBs. They all refer personal behaviours. The magnitude of their final environmental impacts will depend on the extent to which the actor’s ESB influences other people’s behaviours.
Measures to reduce the energy consumption have been suggested in a separate document. After the adoption of the ones that
the management thinks appropriate, the moment will be for the centre to think of a more economic and environmental friendly manner to generate its own energy.
Environmental problems (GHG effects, climate change, depletion of the ozone layer, loss of genetic diversity, air pollution, water pollution and others) are the result of human behaviour. (Gardner and Stern 2002). The consequences on the economy, society and health of climate change are one of the
greatest threats that the world faces today, affecting even the survival of the human race (Tonn 2009).
For the Basque Country, the main impacts forecasted for the last third of the century are an increase of temperatures of up to 7º, heavy changes in rainfall patterns and an inland movement of up to 13m in the coastline.
This GHG emission reduction strategy (or mitigation strategy) is addressed to the key decision making authority in the Basque Country It has been made following the five-step approach recommended by Cities for Climate Protection (ICLEI n.d.).
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
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However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
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This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
Dev Dives: Train smarter, not harder – active learning and UiPath LLMs for do...UiPathCommunity
💥 Speed, accuracy, and scaling – discover the superpowers of GenAI in action with UiPath Document Understanding and Communications Mining™:
See how to accelerate model training and optimize model performance with active learning
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Get an exclusive demo of the new family of UiPath LLMs – GenAI models specialized for processing different types of documents and messages
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👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
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Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3
Renewable energies- history and drivers.
1. Alejo Etchart.
October 2008
A SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF ENERGY DEMAND
AND ITS DRIVERS. THE CASE OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
A brief summary of the history of the energy and its demand drivers
All the energy that humans use comes directly or indirectly from the sun. In the
beginning, humans used their own strength, which came from their food. That was the
only energy source for hundreds of thousands of years, until fire was discovered
350,000 years ago, burning wood as fuel. They had discovered the biomass as energy
source. Thanks to fire, humans gained supremacy over the rest of animals, as they
learned how to be always warm, scare the beasts and produce better arms. By 9,000
years B.C, animals’ strength started to be used to help humans in their daily activities.
The use of wind to move ships is also remote. The first mills to grind wheat using the
energy provided by water flows started to be used in the 1st Century B.C. Eight
centuries later, Persians started to use wind energy also to move mills.
These were the only ways of energy used until the 12th century, when coal, which has a
high calorific power, started to be used to improve metallic arms for wars and hunting.
Coal only becomes the source of energy par excellence with the advent of the Industrial
Revolution in England in the 18th century. After the invention of the steam engine, coal
was used to move locomotives and ships, and to extract minerals. The later need of
energy for electrified motors and illumination explained ulterior increases of coal
demand.
During the Second World War, coal started to be replaced by petroleum and natural
gas, relegating coal to the production of steel, and as a source for power-generating
plants. It was in 1859 when Edwin Drake bored the first oil well in Pennsylvania. The
invention of the engines made by Otto and Diesel in 1876 and 1892 allowed cars to be
powered by products derived from crude oil. Other uses of oil such as powering all
terrestrial, sea and air vehicles, producing plastics and tars, heating, producing
electricity and a wide list of other inventions, made the demand for petroleum increase
exponentially. Not until late fifties did natural gas - that can be found separately or
together with petroleum or coal reservoirs - gain commercial use, and becomes another
pillar of the economical growth of our society.
Together with the popularisation of vehicles and electricity, other drivers for the strong
energy demand increase between 1949 and 1973 were the low and stable price of oil,
and the population explosion from 2.5 to 4 billion.
Discoveries made during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries allowed Albert Einstein
to learn how to obtain fission nuclear energy, and later discoveries by Lise Meitner and
Otto Hahn made the process economically viable. By the late 1950s, the first nuclear
stations started to be used to produce electricity.
2. During the 1960s, consciousness of the ecologic problems arose, these problems being
seen as non-connected realities, and therefore to be tackled with specific end-of-the-pipe
policies. Only in the 1980s did the relationship between the big Earth problems (sea
pollution, ozone layer and forest destruction, drinkable water scarcity, etc.) and the
human action becomes evident. This fact, together with the growing scarcity of
petroleum and natural gas reservoirs, as well as the political consequences of being
dependent upon the petroleum exporting countries, encouraged the development of new
sources of energy to substitute fossil fuels (Bermejo, 2006), grouped under the name of
renewable energies.
What about the future?
According to the WEC (2007), the growth of 50% in energy demand since 1980 will
continue, at an annual rate of 1.6% between 2004 and 2030. Over 70% of this growth
will come from developing countries, where populations and economies are growing
considerably faster than in the OECD nations. China alone will account for some 30%
of the energy demand increase. Fossil fuels will continue to provide more than 80% of
the total energy demand well into the future, and coal will have double demand from
2004 to 2030. The 86% of the coal demand increase will be from developing Asia,
where reserves are large and low-cost.
Can our world hold this increase?
According to the IPCC (2007), human activities are the main responsible for increasing
concentrations of GHG in the atmosphere since 1970 to 2004 in a 70%. The WEC
(2007), states a universally recognized truth when they say that, “the greatest challenge
facing the energy sector today is how to meet rising demand for energy, whilst at the
same time reducing our emissions of greenhouse gases”.
All worldwide institutions call for renewable energies to become a major energy source.
In the EU, the Amsterdam Treaty fixed a goal of 12% for renewable energies share for
2010. The European Council targeted a 20% for 2020. As stated by the Worldwatch
Institute in State of the World 2003 (chapter 5) and recalled in all later yearly editions,
all renewable energies are needed and must be reinforced in order to achieve a
sustainable development.
The next sections are dedicated to the solar photovoltaic energy (PV) as one of the
highest potential renewable energies to move the world towards the desired scenario.
Solar photovoltaic energy (PV)
Solar photovoltaic energy was discovered in 1954, when silicon semiconductors doped
with certain impurities showed to be able to convert the light rays directly into
3. electricity, by turning photons arriving from sunlight and knocking onto electrons, into
a higher state of energy. The most efficient location of photovoltaic panels are
building’s roofs and solar plants.
Approximately 90% of the generated electricity is sent to the general grid, using an
inverter to convert DC into AC. There are smaller installations for remote uses, like
road lightings or telephones, detectors, cathodic protection of pipelines and many
others.
Photovoltaic electricity production has multiplied by 16 in the last 6 years. Well-
designed and mounted installations require minimum maintenance and have a lifespan
of up to thirty years.
EPIA and Greenpeace (2008) advanced scenario says by 2030, PV systems could
generate around 2,600 TWh of electricity worldwide, which means almost 14% of the
world population’s needs.
Advantages of PV
- The 89 petawatts of light arriving to the earth's surface is almost 6,000
times the 15 terawatts of power consumption.
- Solar power use is non-polluting. The net emissions of PV are highly
favorable, compensating the emissions made during fabrication and
transportation with the CO2 savings in a 1 to 5 years term out of the 20-
30 year of their lifespan (J. Pearce at al., 2002).
- Solar electric generation is economically more viable than other
renewable energy sources for local powering.
- Operational costs of solar power plants are very low.
- There is a large way for technologic improvement in materials, processes
and whole efficiency, which are currently improving rapidly (The Energy
Daily, 2007). Expected new materials and technologies to substitute
silicon, like carbon-based polymers and molecules upon thin films,
amorphous or microcrystalline silicon, continuous printing process,
silver cells, concentrator modules and others (AZnanotechnologies,
2008; Saneyuki, 2003). Higher economies of scale will be reached
following the market trend.
- The 120,000 people worldwide employment in PV related jobs may
grow to almost 3,7 million in 2030 under a moderate scenario (EPIA,
2008)
- Under the same scenario, accumulated CO2 savings 2006-2030 can reach
over 5,300 Mt.
Disadvantages of PV
- The cost of the panels and installation is still expensive, delaying the
return on investment period. At the current price of electricity in most of
the countries, unless subsidizing tariffs are offered by the grid network,
the incomes from selling power to the grid do not cover the investment
made.
- The sunlight received depends on the season, time of the day, weather
conditions and location, so it is not stable and its viability varies
worldwide.
4. - As solar light is not available at night and is dependent on weather
conditions and location, a storage system is needed for local use,
increasing the total cost.
- A toxic material (cadmium) is used for panels’ fabrication. Even if it is
properly isolated inside the panel, a special treatment is needed at the end
of its lifespan.
Subsidizing PV: FITs versus quota?
Therefore, one of the most important problems for the rapid expansion of large scale PV
infrastructure seems to be its economical viability in a short term.
The 2nd European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) round table, (July 2007,
Brussels) debated on the future of support mechanisms for PV electricity in Europe.
Germany’s model through a feed-in tariff (FIT) is recognized worldwide as the most
efficient way to promote grip-tied PV systems, and most of the industrialized countries
are following this model. FITs stimulates the PV sector in two ways:
- Security
It guarantees a price paid by electric companies to PV electricity
producers for 20 years, without depending on the State budget. This price
is higher than the one at which electricity retailers sell the standard
electricity, but it is easily absorbed into the average cost of electricity for
distributors because the amount of subsidized energy is not significant in
their portfolio. This way, customers indirectly pay for PV and promote it
through the monthly bill.
- Stimulates improvement
It encourages cost reduction, through a yearly cut of the FIT for new
systems connected to the grid starting from 2009. This way, pressure is
put on the PV-industry to reduce production costs and improve
performance. Customers will opt for systems with highest or fastest
investment return.
The monthly extra-cost per consumer in Germany is only about 1,25€ (EPIA and
Greenpeace, 2008). Germany is the major market in the world, and also the fastest
growing in 2005, 2006 and 2007. Eighteen other EU countries had already adopted this
model by July 2007. South-European countries, especially Spain, are also becoming key
players in PV (BMU, 2007). USA failed to regulate federally the incentives for
renewable energies, so that the State Tax incentives remain the main drivers for PV’s
expansion. Nevertheless, many states are adopting individual FIT programs, and the
expiring of Investment Tax Credits (ITC) at the end of 2008 could lead to extend the
FIT program in all the country. The Canadian situation is similar to the USA. Japan’s
policy (the second world’s largest producer), mixes FITs with other policies.
The other current way to promote PV is the “quota model”, which regulates the quantity
instead of the price, by forcing the electric companies to have a certain percentage of
their portfolio filled with renewable energies (IEEP, 2006). It is currently followed
mainly in the USA (although some states are shifting to FIT), UK and Sweden. In the
6. - Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) (2007), “Climate Change 2007:
Synthesis Report”, IPCC, Geneva
- Pearce J, Lau A. (2002) “Energy analysis for sustainable energy production…” In:
Proceedings of American Society of Mechanical Engineers Solar 2002: Sunrise on the
Reliable Energy Economy. 2002.
- Saneyuki et al. (2003), “Development of Amorphous silicon/ Microcrystalline Silicon
Tandem Solar Cells” available at
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=01306227 [Accessed 19/10/08]
- The Energy Daily (2007), “Study Sees Solar Cost-Competitive In Europe By 2015”,
Vol. 35, No. 173.
- University of Cambridge, Department of Applied Economics- MIT Center for Energy
and Environmental Policy Research (2004), “Cambridge Working Papers in Economics
0503”, http://www.econ.cam.ac.uk/electricity/publications/wp/ep70.pdf [Accessed
20/10/08]
- World Business Council for SD (WBCSD) (2002), “The Business Case for SD”.
WBCSD, Geneva.
- World Energy Council (WEC) (2003), “Drivers on the Energy Scene”, published by
WEC, London.
- World Energy Council (WEC) (2007) Survey of Energy Resources 2007, published by
WEC, London.
- Worldwide Watch ( 2003) “State of the World 2003” Norton & Company, New York,
NY.