3. Definition of Terms
Progymnasmata
a set of rudimentary exercises to prepare students of rhetoric
for the creation and performance of complete practice
orations; from the Greek, pro “before” and gymnasmata
“exercises”; 14 stages, the first six of which are:
4. Definition of Terms
Progymnasmata
a set of rudimentary exercises to prepare students of rhetoric
for the creation and performance of complete practice
orations; from the Greek, pro “before” and gymnasmata
“exercises”; 14 stages, the first six of which are:
Fable
Narrative
Chreia
Maxim (i.e. Proverb)
Refutation
Confirmation
6. Definition of Terms
Recognition
Aristotle maintained that Recognition or Discovery scenes
along with Reversal scenes are the two experiences
which bring the reader or audience delight.
1) It occurs when the audience suddenly becomes aware
of a truth not realized previously in the story; “a
change from ignorance to knowledge.”
2) It also occurs when a writer describes a truth, event
or character in such a way that the reader identifies
with or remembers a similar experience.
7. Definition of Terms
Recognition
Aristotle maintained that Recognition or Discovery scenes along with
Reversal scenes are the two experiences which bring the reader or
audience delight.
1) It occurs when the audience suddenly becomes aware of a truth
not realized previously in the story; “a change from ignorance to
knowledge.”
2) It also occurs when a writer describes a truth, event or character
in such a way that the reader identifies with or remembers a
similar experience.
Give one example of each kind of recognition.
25. Definition of Terms
Chreia
(from the Greek chreiôdes, “useful”) a brief
reminiscence referring to some person in a
pithy form for the purpose of edification. It
takes the form of an anecdote that reports
either a saying, an edifying action, or both.
27. Definition of Terms
Encomium
a formal expression of praise;
[also, the first paragraph head in the Chreia
essay, which praises the author of the saying
(Chreia) or the saying itself (Maxim)]
29. Definition of Terms
Paraphrase
retelling the fable or narrative in a student’s
own words while amplifying through figures of
description, rearranging the sequence of
events, or changing characters, place, or time.
[also, the second paragraph in the Chreia
essay, which provides an explanatory variation
of the saying.]
33. Definition of Terms
Converse
an object, idea or action which is the exact
opposite of another.
[also, fourth paragraph head in the Chreia essay
that is the exact opposite of the cause
paragraph]
35. Definition of Terms
Analogy
resemblance of relations or attributes as a
ground of reasoning;
[also, the fifth paragraph head in the Chreia
essay that matches the effect of the Chreia’s
action with the effect of a dissimilar
action, e.g. Preparing for war results in the joy
of peace as practicing soccer skills results in
the joy of winning.]
37. Definition of Terms
Example
a typical instance; a fact, etc. that forms a
particular case of a principle, rule, state of
things, or the like; a person or thing that
illustrates a quality
[also, sixth paragraph head in the Chreia essay
that provides a particular instance of the
Chreia in narrative form (e.g. historical or
literary event)]
39. Definition of Terms
Testimony
personal or documentary evidence or
attestation in support of a fact or statement;
hence, any form of evidence or proof.
[also, the seventh paragraph head in the Chreia
essay that provides a testimony in support of
the saying]
41. Definition of Terms
Epilogue
the concluding part of an oration, speech, or
written discourse, in which the speaker or
writer sums up; any rhetorical conclusion to a
speech; a summary. The concluding part of a
literary work.
[also, the eighth and last paragraph head in the
Chreia essay that addresses the audience with
a challenge]
56. On the quiz
• Be able to match the terms with their
definition
57. On the quiz
• Be able to match the terms with their definition
• Be able to identify examples of the following
terms:
-
Encomium, Paraphrase, Cause, Converse, Analogy, Exa
mple, Testimony
-Recognition, Reversal, Suffering
-Agent, Action, Time, Place, Manner, Cause
-Credit/Discredit; Clarity/Unclarity;
Plausibility/Implausibility; Possibility/Impossibility;
Consistency/Inconsistency; Propriety/Impropriety;
Expediency/Inexpediency
59. ‘Farewell, Aragorn! Go to Minas Tirith and
save my people! I have failed.’
‘No!’ said Aragorn, taking his hand and
kissing his brow. ‘You have conquered. Few
have gained such a victory. Be at peace! Minas
Tirith shall not fall!’
60. ‘Farewell, Aragorn! Go to Minas Tirith and save
my people! I have failed.’
‘No!’ said Aragorn, taking his hand and kissing
his brow. ‘You have conquered. Few have gained
such a victory. Be at peace! Minas Tirith shall not
fall!’
dialogismus– Including conversation or dialogue
between two or more characters.
61. Here the highlands of the Emyn Muil ran from North
to South in two long tumbled ridges. The western
side of each ridge was steep and difficult, but the
eastward slopes were gentler, furrowed with many
gullies and narrow ravines. All night the three
companions scrambled in this bony land, climbing to
the crest of the first and tallest ridge, and down
again into the darkness of a deep winding valley on
the other side.
62. Here the highlands of the Emyn Muil ran from North
to South in two long tumbled ridges. The western
side of each ridge was steep and difficult, but the
eastward slopes were gentler, furrowed with many
gullies and narrow ravines. All night the three
companions scrambled in this bony land, climbing to
the crest of the first and tallest ridge, and down
again into the darkness of a deep winding valley on
the other side.
geographia- vivid description of some feature of the
earth
63. ‘I suppose I was knocked on the head,’ he said to himself. ‘I
wonder if poor Merry is much hurt. What has happened to
Boromir? Why didn’t the Orcs kill us? Where are we, and
where are we going?’ He could not answer the questions. He
felt cold and sick. ‘I wish Gandalf had never persuaded Elrond
to let us come,’ he thought. ‘What good have I been? Just a
nuisance: a passenger, a piece of luggage. And now I have
been stolen and I am just a piece of luggage for the Orcs. I
hope Strider or someone will come and claim us!
64. ‘I suppose I was knocked on the head,’ he said to himself. ‘I
wonder if poor Merry is much hurt. What has happened to
Boromir? Why didn’t the Orcs kill us? Where are we, and
where are we going?’ He could not answer the questions. He
felt cold and sick. ‘I wish Gandalf had never persuaded Elrond
to let us come,’ he thought. ‘What good have I been? Just a
nuisance: a passenger, a piece of luggage. And now I have
been stolen and I am just a piece of luggage for the Orcs. I
hope Strider or someone will come and claim us!
sermocinatio—speaking for someone else in the first
person as they would speak; or a first-person speech
(a monologue)
65. The twigs of the trees at its foot were stretched out stiff and
still, as if reaching out to the warmth. Where all had looked so
shabby and grey before, the wood now gleamed with rich
browns, and with the smooth black-greys of bark like polished
leather. The boles of the trees glowed with a soft green like
young grass: early spring or a fleeting vision of it was about
them.
66. The twigs of the trees at its foot were stretched out stiff and
still, as if reaching out to the warmth. Where all had looked so
shabby and grey before, the wood now gleamed with rich
browns, and with the smooth black-greys of bark like polished
leather. The boles of the trees glowed with a soft green like
young grass: early spring or a fleeting vision of it was about
them.
dendographia—creating an illusion of reality through
the vivid description of a tree
67. ‘Wait a minute!’ cried Gimli. ‘There is another thing that I
should like to know first. Was it you, Gandalf, or Saruman that
we saw last night?’
‘You certainly did not see me,’ answered
Gandalf, ‘therefore I must guess that you saw Saruman.
Evidently we look so much alike that your desire to make an
incurable dent in my hat must be excused.’
‘Good, good!’ said Gimli. ‘I am glad that it was not you.’
(continue on next slide)
68. ‘Wait a minute!’ cried Gimli. ‘There is another thing that I
should like to know first. Was it you, Gandalf, or Saruman that
we saw last night?’
‘You certainly did not see me,’ answered
Gandalf, ‘therefore I must guess that you saw Saruman.
Evidently we look so much alike that your desire to make an
incurable dent in my hat must be excused.’
‘Good, good!’ said Gimli. ‘I am glad that it was not you.’
69. ‘Wait a minute!’ cried Gimli. ‘There is another thing that I
should like to know first. Was it you, Gandalf, or Saruman that
we saw last night?’
‘You certainly did not see me,’ answered
Gandalf, ‘therefore I must guess that you saw Saruman.
Evidently we look so much alike that your desire to make an
incurable dent in my hat must be excused.’
‘Good, good!’ said Gimli. ‘I am glad that it was not you.’
diminutio—similar to hyperbole, variation by
diminutio is achieved by understatement.
70. ...and in the midst, set upon a green terrace, there stands
aloft a great hall of Men. And it seems to my eyes that it is
thatched with gold. The light of it shines far over the land.
Golden, too, are the posts of its doors. There men in bright
mail stand; but all else within the courts are yet asleep.’
71. ...and in the midst, set upon a green terrace, there stands
aloft a great hall of Men. And it seems to my eyes that it is
thatched with gold. The light of it shines far over the land.
Golden, too, are the posts of its doors. There men in bright
mail stand; but all else within the courts are yet asleep.’
topographia—the description of a place (which
might include more than the geographia, such as
buildings, streets, etc.).
72. ‘It is dark for archery,’ said Gimli. ‘Indeed it is time for sleep.
Sleep! I feel the need of it, as never I thought any dwarf could.
Riding is tiring work. Yet my axe is restless in my hand. Give
me a row of orc-necks and room to swing and all weariness
will fall from me!’
(cont. next slide)
73. ‘It is dark for archery,’ said Gimli. ‘Indeed it is time for sleep.
Sleep! I feel the need of it, as never I thought any dwarf could.
Riding is tiring work. Yet my axe is restless in my hand. Give
me a row of orc-necks and room to swing and all weariness
will fall from me!’
74. ‘It is dark for archery,’ said Gimli. ‘Indeed it is time for sleep.
Sleep! I feel the need of it, as never I thought any dwarf could.
Riding is tiring work. Yet my axe is restless in my hand. Give
me a row of orc-necks and room to swing and all weariness
will fall from me!’
prosopopoeia—a synonym for the figure of speech
personification, in which non-human things are
ascribed human characteristics
75. Even as he spoke, there came forward out of the trees three
strange shapes. As tall as trolls they were, twelve feet or more
in height; their strong bodies, stout as young trees, seemed to
be clad with raiment or with hide of close-fitting grey and
brown. Their limbs were long, and their hands had many
fingers; their hair was stiff, and their beards grey-green as
moss.
76. Even as he spoke, there came forward out of the trees three
strange shapes. As tall as trolls they were, twelve feet or more
in height; their strong bodies, stout as young trees, seemed to
be clad with raiment or with hide of close-fitting grey and
brown. Their limbs were long, and their hands had many
fingers; their hair was stiff, and their beards grey-green as
moss.
effictio—the description of a person’s body.
77. ‘It was the Huorns, or so the Ents call them in “short
language”. Treebeard won’t say much about them, but I think
they are Ents that have become almost like trees, at least to
look at. They stand here and there in the wood or under its
eaves, silent, watching endlessly over the trees; but deep in
the darkest dales there are hundreds and hundreds of them, I
believe. ‘There is a great power in them, and they seem able
to wrap themselves in shadow: it is difficult to see them
moving. But they do. They can move very quickly, if they are
angry.
78. ‘It was the Huorns, or so the Ents call them in “short
language”. Treebeard won’t say much about them, but I think
they are Ents that have become almost like trees, at least to
look at. They stand here and there in the wood or under its
eaves, silent, watching endlessly over the trees; but deep in
the darkest dales there are hundreds and hundreds of them, I
believe. ‘There is a great power in them, and they seem able
to wrap themselves in shadow: it is difficult to see them
moving. But they do. They can move very quickly, if they are
angry.
chorographia—the vivid description of a nation or
group collectively
79. The window closed. They waited. Suddenly another voice
spoke, low and melodious, its very sound an enchantment.
Those who listened unwarily to that voice could seldom
report the words that they heard; and if they did, they
wondered, for little power remained in them. Mostly they
remembered only that it was a delight to hear the voice
speaking, all that it said seemed wise and reasonable, and
desire awoke in them by swift agreement to seem wise
themselves. When others spoke they seemed harsh and
uncouth by contrast; and if they gainsaid the voice, anger was
kindled in the hearts of those under the spell.
(cont. on next slide)
80. The window closed. They waited. Suddenly another voice
spoke, low and melodious, its very sound an enchantment.
Those who listened unwarily to that voice could seldom
report the words that they heard; and if they did, they
wondered, for little power remained in them. Mostly they
remembered only that it was a delight to hear the voice
speaking, all that it said seemed wise and reasonable, and
desire awoke in them by swift agreement to seem wise
themselves. When others spoke they seemed harsh and
uncouth by contrast; and if they gainsaid the voice, anger was
kindled in the hearts of those under the spell.
81. The window closed. They waited. Suddenly another voice
spoke, low and melodious, its very sound an enchantment.
Those who listened unwarily to that voice could seldom
report the words that they heard; and if they did, they
wondered, for little power remained in them. Mostly they
remembered only that it was a delight to hear the voice
speaking, all that it said seemed wise and reasonable, and
desire awoke in them by swift agreement to seem wise
themselves. When others spoke they seemed harsh and
uncouth by contrast; and if they gainsaid the voice, anger was
kindled in the hearts of those under the spell.
synecdoche—understanding the whole from the
part, as point for sword; roof for house; and vice
versa
82. ‘So this is the thief!’ said Gandalf. Hastily he cast his cloak
over the globe where it lay. ‘But you, Pippin! This is a grievous
turn to things!’ He knelt by Pippin’s body: the hobbit was lying
on his back, rigid, with unseeing eyes staring up at the sky.
‘The devilry! What mischief has he done – to himself, and to
all of us?’ The wizard’s face was drawn and haggard.
He took Pippin’s hand and bent over his face, listening for
his breath; then he laid his hands on his brow. The hobbit
shuddered. His eyes closed. He cried out; and sat up, staring
in bewilderment at all the faces round him, pale in the
moonlight.
(cont. on next slide)
83. ‘So this is the thief!’ said Gandalf. Hastily he cast his cloak
over the globe where it lay. ‘But you, Pippin! This is a grievous
turn to things!’ He knelt by Pippin’s body: the hobbit was lying
on his back, rigid, with unseeing eyes staring up at the sky.
‘The devilry! What mischief has he done – to himself, and to
all of us?’ The wizard’s face was drawn and haggard.
He took Pippin’s hand and bent over his face, listening for
his breath; then he laid his hands on his brow. The hobbit
shuddered. His eyes closed. He cried out; and sat up, staring
in bewilderment at all the faces round him, pale in the
moonlight.
84. ‘So this is the thief!’ said Gandalf. Hastily he cast his cloak
over the globe where it lay. ‘But you, Pippin! This is a grievous
turn to things!’ He knelt by Pippin’s body: the hobbit was lying
on his back, rigid, with unseeing eyes staring up at the sky.
‘The devilry! What mischief has he done – to himself, and to
all of us?’ The wizard’s face was drawn and haggard.
He took Pippin’s hand and bent over his face, listening for
his breath; then he laid his hands on his brow. The hobbit
shuddered. His eyes closed. He cried out; and sat up, staring
in bewilderment at all the faces round him, pale in the
moonlight.
prosopographia—the vivid description of someone’s
face.
85. Suddenly he stiffened, and stooping he gripped Sam by the
arm. ‘What’s that?’ he whispered. ‘Look over there on the
cliff!’ Sam looked and breathed in sharply through his teeth.
‘Ssss!’ he said. ‘That’s what it is. It’s that Gollum! Snakes and
adders! And to think that I thought that we’d puzzle him with
our bit of a climb! Look at him! Like a nasty crawling spider on
a wall.’
(cont. on next slide)
86. Suddenly he stiffened, and stooping he gripped Sam by the
arm. ‘What’s that?’ he whispered. ‘Look over there on the
cliff!’ Sam looked and breathed in sharply through his teeth.
‘Ssss!’ he said. ‘That’s what it is. It’s that Gollum! Snakes and
adders! And to think that I thought that we’d puzzle him with
our bit of a climb! Look at him! Like a nasty crawling spider on
a wall.’
87. Suddenly he stiffened, and stooping he gripped Sam by the
arm. ‘What’s that?’ he whispered. ‘Look over there on the
cliff!’ Sam looked and breathed in sharply through his teeth.
‘Ssss!’ he said. ‘That’s what it is. It’s that Gollum! Snakes and
adders! And to think that I thought that we’d puzzle him with
our bit of a climb! Look at him! Like a nasty crawling spider on
a wall.’
simile—a figure of speech that directly compares
two different things, usually by employing the words
"like" or "as"
88. ‘We should be glad to see the Sun,’ said Frodo, ‘but we will
stay here: we are too tired to go any further at present.’
‘You are not wise to be glad of the Yellow Face,’ said
Gollum. ‘It shows you up.
(cont. on next slide)
89. ‘We should be glad to see the Sun,’ said Frodo, ‘but we will
stay here: we are too tired to go any further at present.’
‘You are not wise to be glad of the Yellow Face,’ said
Gollum. ‘It shows you up.
90. ‘We should be glad to see the Sun,’ said Frodo, ‘but we will
stay here: we are too tired to go any further at present.’
‘You are not wise to be glad of the Yellow Face,’ said
Gollum. ‘It shows you up.
periphrasis—method of antonomasia becomes periphrasis if
it occurs with a phrase or a number of words
91. Frodo quickly drew his frail grey hood close upon his
head, and stepped down into the dell. Then he turned to
Gollum. ‘Sméagol,’ he said, ‘I will trust you once more.
(cont. on next slide)
92. Frodo quickly drew his frail grey hood close upon his
head, and stepped down into the dell. Then he turned to
Gollum. ‘Sméagol,’ he said, ‘I will trust you once more.
93. Frodo quickly drew his frail grey hood close upon his
head, and stepped down into the dell. Then he turned to
Gollum. ‘Sméagol,’ he said, ‘I will trust you once more.
autonomasia—occurs with a change of name from general to
specific or vice versa
94. ‘And this I remember of Boromir as a boy, when we
together learned the tale of our sires and the history of our
city, that always it displeased him that his father was not king.
“How many hundreds of years needs it to make a steward a
king, if the king returns not?” he asked. “Few years, maybe, in
other places of less royalty,” my father answered. “In Gondor
ten thousand years would not suffice.” Alas! poor Boromir.
Does that not tell you something of him?’
95. ‘And this I remember of Boromir as a boy, when we
together learned the tale of our sires and the history of our
city, that always it displeased him that his father was not king.
“How many hundreds of years needs it to make a steward a
king, if the king returns not?” he asked. “Few years, maybe, in
other places of less royalty,” my father answered. “In Gondor
ten thousand years would not suffice.” Alas! poor Boromir.
Does that not tell you something of him?’
ethopoeia—the description and portrayal of a character
(natural propensities, manners, and affections, etc.).
and
mimesis—imitating someone’s speak, mannerisms, etc.
96. They stood on a wet floor of polished stone, the
doorstep, as it were, of a rough-hewn gate of rock opening
dark behind them. But in front a thin veil of water was
hung, so near that Frodo could have put an outstretched arm
into it. It faced westward. The level shafts of the setting sun
behind beat upon it, and the red light was broken into many
flickering beams of ever-changing colour. It was as if they
stood at the window of some elven-tower, curtained with
threaded jewels of silver and gold, and ruby, sapphire and
amethyst, all kindled with an unconsuming fire.
(cont. on next slide)
97. They stood on a wet floor of polished stone, the
doorstep, as it were, of a rough-hewn gate of rock opening
dark behind them. But in front a thin veil of water was
hung, so near that Frodo could have put an outstretched arm
into it. It faced westward. The level shafts of the setting sun
behind beat upon it, and the red light was broken into many
flickering beams of ever-changing colour. It was as if they
stood at the window of some elven-tower, curtained with
threaded jewels of silver and gold, and ruby, sapphire and
amethyst, all kindled with an unconsuming fire.
98. They stood on a wet floor of polished stone, the
doorstep, as it were, of a rough-hewn gate of rock opening
dark behind them. But in front a thin veil of water was
hung, so near that Frodo could have put an outstretched arm
into it. It faced westward. The level shafts of the setting sun
behind beat upon it, and the red light was broken into many
flickering beams of ever-changing colour. It was as if they
stood at the window of some elven-tower, curtained with
threaded jewels of silver and gold, and ruby, sapphire and
amethyst, all kindled with an unconsuming fire.
hydrographia—the vivid description of water
99. This was done, and they were led from the cave of
Henneth Annûn. After they had passed the passages and
stairs they felt the cool morning air, fresh and sweet, about
them.
100. This was done, and they were led from the cave of
Henneth Annûn. After they had passed the passages and
stairs they felt the cool morning air, fresh and sweet, about
them.
anemographia—the vivid description of the wind
101. At that moment the rock quivered and trembled beneath
them. The great rumbling noise, louder than ever
before, rolled in the ground and echoed in the mountains.
Then with searing suddenness there came a great red flash.
Far beyond the eastern mountains it leapt into the sky and
splashed the lowering clouds with crimson. In that valley of
shadow and cold deathly light it seemed unbearably violent
and fierce. Peaks of stone and ridges like notched knives
sprang out in staring black against the uprushing flame in
Gorgoroth. Then came a great crack of thunder.
(cont. on next slide)
102. At that moment the rock quivered and trembled beneath
them. The great rumbling noise, louder than ever
before, rolled in the ground and echoed in the mountains.
Then with searing suddenness there came a great red flash.
Far beyond the eastern mountains it leapt into the sky and
splashed the lowering clouds with crimson. In that valley of
shadow and cold deathly light it seemed unbearably violent
and fierce. Peaks of stone and ridges like notched knives
sprang out in staring black against the uprushing flame in
Gorgoroth. Then came a great crack of thunder.
103. At that moment the rock quivered and trembled beneath
them. The great rumbling noise, louder than ever
before, rolled in the ground and echoed in the mountains.
Then with searing suddenness there came a great red flash.
Far beyond the eastern mountains it leapt into the sky and
splashed the lowering clouds with crimson. In that valley of
shadow and cold deathly light it seemed unbearably violent
and fierce. Peaks of stone and ridges like notched knives
sprang out in staring black against the uprushing flame in
Gorgoroth. Then came a great crack of thunder.
onomatopoeia—the coining of a name or the formation
of a word from a sound associated with what is named.
104. Slowly his hand went to his bosom, and slowly he held
aloft the Phial of Galadriel. For a moment it glimmered, faint
as a rising star struggling in heavy earthward mists, and then
as its power waxed, and hope grew in Frodo’s mind, it began
to burn, and kindled to a silver flame, a minute heart of
dazzling light, as though Eärendil had himself come down
from the high sunset paths with the last Silmaril upon his
brow. The darkness receded from it, until it seemed to shine
in the centre of a globe of airy crystal, and the hand that held
it sparkled with white fire.
105. Slowly his hand went to his bosom, and slowly he held
aloft the Phial of Galadriel. For a moment it glimmered, faint
as a rising star struggling in heavy earthward mists, and then
as its power waxed, and hope grew in Frodo’s mind, it began
to burn, and kindled to a silver flame, a minute heart of
dazzling light, as though Eärendil had himself come down
from the high sunset paths with the last Silmaril upon his
brow. The darkness receded from it, until it seemed to shine
in the centre of a globe of airy crystal, and the hand that held
it sparkled with white fire.
astrothesia—the vivid description of stars (could include
sun, moon, and planets).
106. On the quiz
• Be able to match the figures of description
and speech with their definition.
107. On the quiz
• Be able to match the figures of description
and speech with their definition.
• Be able to identify examples of some of these
figures of description and speech.
