3. The reasoning or arguments
which are valid but actually
invalid.
Arguments, which you know
are correct but definitely are
not correct.
Arguments the seem to be true
but are actually false.
4.
5.
6. An error committed is on the violation
of the antecedent- consequent
relationship or the rules of syllogism.
Are glaring errors (a defective form)
which result from violation of the
fundamental forms of arguments such
as the rules of definition, division,
conversion and obversion.
7.
8. the
definition is wider than the term it
connotes. In this kind of fallacy you
should not widen or exaggerate the
definition of the term to really
understand the reality of truth. A
violation arises when we decrease the
connotation of the definitions and
widen their denotations.
Example: Man is an animal.
9. it
violates the rule of definition because
the definition is too narrow. Violation
arises when we unduly increase the
connotation of the definition, thus
narrowing its denotation.
Example: Man is an irritable
rational man.
10. the term are repeated and not
essential.
Example: Man is a rational animal
capable of learning how to operate
and use a computer.
11. some accidental attributes which are
not useful are added to the
definition. Even without the
accidental attributes, the meaning
could still be distinguished.
Example: Man is a rational being who
knows how to dance and sing.
12. the definition should not be
synonymous to the term it defines.
Examples:
•Inflammable is the opposite of
flammable.
•A man is a male person.
13. the definition must be simple
enough to easily understand. Do not
add terms which are different. They
should be clear and simple.
Example:
• A net is reticulated fabric decussated
at regular intervals with interstices
and intersections.
14. -do not use exaggeration in
defining the term. Figurative or
metaphorical language must not
be used.
Example:
• Love is the silver link, the silken tie,
which heart to heart, and mind to
mind, in body and soul can bind.
15. do not use a definition which is not
the meaning of the term but rather
give the real meaning of the term.
Examples:
• An insecure person is one who is not
secure.
• A pen is not a pencil.
16. this
fallacy is also known as overlapping which is a
violation of the golden rule of logical division
that we have to use only one foundation or
basis in defining the term.
Example:
• If we divide Filipinos into Christians, Muslim and Buddhist,
we are using a single foundation. On the other
hand, if we divide Filipinos into Christians, Muslims,
doctors, women and married, we are using more
than one bases of division, namely, religion, profession,
sex and civil status. The result is
cross division.
17. it means that we do not go
beyond what is really meant by
the term.
Example:
•Man into: black, brown, yellow,
white, red, blue and green. Here,
blue and green exceed or go
beyond the accepted color or race
of man.
18. Narrow means “ limited in size or
scope”. The definition of a term is
incomplete or insufficient. You should
complete the definition of a term. A
good definition must be complete.
Example:
• Triangle: isosceles and equilateral
19. our definition should depend upon
the basis of division.
Example:
• If we divide organisms into roses and
Filipinos instead of into animals and
plants, we commit this fallacy.
20. this fallacy arises when a term is
undistributed(particularly) in the
converted(original propositions) then
distributed(universal) in the converse(inferred
propositions).
Example:
All Filipinos are Orientals. (Converted)
All Bulakeños are Tagalogs. (Converse)
Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.
21. this fallacy arises when, in charging the
obverted(original proposition) from the
affirmative, the meaning of the original
proposition is changed.
Example:
All Filipinos are Asians. (Obverted)
No Filipinos are Asians. (Obverse)
Some Filipinos are Muslims. (Obverted)
Some Filipinos are not Muslims. (Obverse)
22. -this fallacy occurs if there are actually
four terms in the syllogism and there is no
middle term that serves as the medium of
comparison between the minor and the major
terms.
Example:
All Filipinos are Orientals.
All Bulakeños are Tagalog.
Therefore, all Bulakeños are Orientals.
23. this is also known as the fallacy of
two negatives which occurs when we
draw a conclusion from two negative
premises.
Example:
No Americans are Filipinos.
No American are Russians.
Therefore, no Russians are Filipinos.
24. this fallacy violates the syllogistics
rule which prescribes that the middle
term must be used at least once as
universal in any of the premises.
Example
Some Filipinos are lawyers.
All Ilocanos are Filipinos.
Therefore, some Ilocanos are lawyers.
25. -this is also known as the fallacy of
two particulars. When we draw a
conclusion from two particular
premises, this fallacy is committed.
Example:
Some Filipinos are Tagalogs.
Same Batangueños are Tagaolgs.
Some Batangueños are Filipinos.
26. -this fallacy arises when the minor
term becomes universal in the
conclusion while it is particular in the
minor premise.
Example:
Filipinos are patriotic.
Americans are not Filipinos.
Americans are not patriotic.
27. - this fallacy develops when the
major term becomes universal in the
conclusion whereas it is only particular
in the major premise.
Example:
Filipinos are heroic people.
Malayans are not Filipinos.
Therefore, Malayans are not heroic.
28. -this fallacy occurs when we draw a conclusion from
IEO mood. The major premise is a particular affirmative
proposition,(I), and the minor premise is universal
negative proposition, (E), the conclusion is a particular
negative proposition, (O), in compliance with the
syllogistic rule that should one premise be particular, the
conclusion also must be particular; should one premise be
negative, the conclusion must also be negative.
Example:
First Figure Fourth Figure
I --- Some M is Pu I --- Some Pu is M
E --- No S is M E --- No M is S
O --- Some S is not Pu O --- Some S is Pu
29. A fallacy arise s from confusion or
ambiguity due to the kind of term
used.
Are due to confusion in the
connotation or denotation of terms
employed, simple ignorance or the
plain misapprehension of acts.
32. -this fallacy is committed when some
terms are used in a premise but with different
meanings. There are Tree Kinds of Fallacy of
Equivocation.
1.Fallacy of Ambiguous Middle: the middle term
is used with two different meanings.
Example:
A ruler helps us to draw a straight line.
Datu Puti is a ruler.
Datu Puti helps us to draw a straight line.
33. 2.Fallacy of Ambiguous Major: when the
major term is used in two senses.
Example:
All bishops move only diagonally.
Deogracias Iniguez, DD is a bishop.
Therefore, Bishop Deogracias Iniguez,
DD moves only diagonally.
34.
35. 3.Fallacy of Ambiguous Minor: when the
minor term is used in two different
senses.
Example:
No man is made of paper.
All pages are men.
Therefore, no pages are made of
paper.
36. it arises from ambiguous use not a
single word but of a phrase or of a
complete sentence.
Example:
This man his father killed.
For sale: Hyundai Car by a carboy
with damaged button.
37. -this arises from the use of a word
which changes meaning when the
accent on the word changes.
Example:
Every invalid needs care and attention.
Every fallacy is invalid.
Every fallacy needs care and
attention.
38. - a wrong conclusion is drawn due
to the use of words that are similar in
structure or in meaning.
Example:
Honest is the opposite of dishonest
Loyal is the opposite of dishonest
Mature is the opposite of immature.
39. - this fallacy is committed as
words or phrases are taken jointly or
as a unit when they should be taken
separately.
Example:
The students from RMTU come from the
different barrios of Iba.
Monica is a student of RMTU.
Monica is from the different barrios of Iba.
40. -this fallacy is the opposite of the
composition. It takes words or phrases
separately when it should be taken
jointly or as a unit.
Example:
BSIE students make up a good class.
Angelo is a BSIE student.
Angelo makes up a good class.
41. -this fallacy arises when what is
accidental or superficial is
emphasized over what is essential or
basic.
Example:
This coke is in a very elegant bottle.
Therefore it must taste good and
refreshing.
42. -it arranges a wrong cause in a
certain effect. Superstitions are
based on this fallacy.
Example:
He met an accident because it’s Friday
the 13th.
43. - it consists of arguing that what is
true to a certain class must also be true
to all members of the same class.
Example:
Some politicians are corrupt.
All politicians are corrupt.
44. -this fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn
from premises that are irrelevant.
Example:
Maria must be promoted.
She is hardworking.
She is a doctoral degree holder.
She is very decent woman.
She is a member of various professionals
associations.
Therefore, Maria deserves to be promoted.
45.
46. -this fallacy is the assumption of
the truth of the proposition.
a. Not proven- assumes the conclusion
under cover of synonymous words or
expression.
Example:
Souls can never die because they are
immortal.
47. b. Vicious Circle- uses two unproved
propositions to prove each other.
Example:
The mind is spiritual because it is
immaterial.
The mind is immaterial because it is
spiritual.
48. - this fallacy is made to evade the
issue by using techniques or modus
operandi.
49. this ignores real issues. It attacks
the character or personality of an
opponent.
Example:
Why should we believe in the statement
of Ka Doming?
He is an ex- convict. He was
convicted once of murder.
50. - it evades the issue by appealing
to passions and prejudices of the
populace.
Example:
Only respectable women wear a Sara Lee
bikinis.
Anlene Milk keeps your bones
healthy.
51. it consist of pleading for mercy and
leaving reason aside. We ignore the point
of issue and appeal to our instinct to have
compassion towards the needy,
unfortunate, and the downtrodden.
Example:
Anthony cannot be given a failing
grade because he is blind.
52. we commit this fallacy when we appeal
to the sense of greed or cupidity of an
individual. Instead of reasoning for an
argument, we bribe and use money to defeat
the opponent.
Example:
A jeepney driver who was caught by
policemen for traffic violation uses his
money to settle arguments.
53. -we ignore the truth or falsity of a
proposition and assert the truth
because people are ignorant about it.
Example:
We cannot disprove that mermaids exist,
therefore, this existence is true.
Mermaids exist.
54. -we commit this fallacy when we ignore
the real issue at hand and appeal to physical or
moral pressure rather than to reason.
Example:
A teacher threatens her students that if
they will not give her an outstanding
performance rating in the evaluation survey,
she will give them failing marks.
55. -this argument is called an appeal to gain
profit. This fallacy is committed when we
ignore the issue and appeal to a person to
adopt a belief or policy in exchange for the
advantage offered.
Example:
A man offers to a girl for her to study and
finish a degree but in return, the girl
should be his mistress.
