Ratio analysis measures relationships between financial variables to show how a firm's situation compares to its past, other firms, and the industry. Ratios are used to identify performance, standardize information, provide early warnings, and enable trend spotting. Key types of ratios include liquidity, activity, debt, and profitability. Liquidity ratios measure a firm's ability to pay obligations and include current, quick, and cash ratios. Activity ratios evaluate efficiency through measures like inventory turnover, accounts receivable period, and asset turnover.

1. RATIO ANALYSIS

2. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

3. Ratio Analysis
–Measure relationships between resources
and financial flows
–Show ways in which firm’s situation
deviates from
• Its own past
• Other firms
• The industry

4. Ratio Analysis
The study and
interpretation of the
relationships between
various financial variables,
by investors or lenders.

5. Ratio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - Significance
The discussion of ratios will
include the following types of comparisons.
A single ratio by itself is not very meaningful.

6. • To identify aspects of a business’s
performance to aid decision making
• Quantitative process – may need to be
supplemented by qualitative factors to get
a complete picture
• Standardize financial information for
comparisons
Ratio Analysis - PurposeRatio Analysis - PurposeRatio Analysis - PurposeRatio Analysis - Purpose

7. • Provide the all-important early warning
indications that allow us to solve our business
problems before our business is destroyed by
those problems.
• Enables the business owner/manager to spot
trends in a business
Ratio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - SignificanceRatio Analysis - Significance

8. How a Ratio is expressed?
As Percentage - such as 25% or 50% . For
example if net profit is Rs.25,000/- and the sales is
Rs.1,00,000/- then the net profit can be said to be
25% of the sales.
As Proportion - The above figures may be
expressed in terms of the relationship between net
profit to sales as 1 : 4.
As Pure Number /Times - The same can also be
expressed in an alternatively way such as the sale is
4 times of the net profit or profit is 1/4th
of the sales.

9. Ratio Analysis

10. Ratio Analysis
1. Liquidity – the ability of the firm to pay its way
2. Investment/shareholders – information to enable decisions to be
made on the extent of the risk and the earning potential of a
business investment
3. Gearing – information on the relationship between the exposure of
the business to loans as opposed to share capital
4. Profitability – how effective the firm is at generating profits given
sales and or its capital assets
5. Financial – the rate at which the company sells its stock and the
efficiency with which it uses its assets

11. TERMS USED IN RATIO ANALYSIS
• Current Assets
• Quick Assets (Current Assets- Inventories- Prepaid
Expenses)
• Absolute Liquid Assets (Cash, bank & short term
securities)
• Working Capital
• Receivables
• Payables
• Fixed Assets
• Fictitious Assets
• Intangible Assets

12. TERMS USED IN RATIO ANALYSIS
• Capital Employed
• Investments
• Current Liabilities
• Debt
• Equity
• Cost of Goods Sold
• Cost of Sales
• Long term funds
• Long term loans

13. Classification of Ratios
Balance Sheet
Ratio
P&L Ratio or
Income/Revenue
Statement Ratio
Balance Sheet and
Profit & Loss
Ratio
Financial Ratio Operating Ratio Composite Ratio
Current Ratio
Quick Asset Ratio
Debt Equity Ratio
Gross Profit Ratio
Operating Ratio
Expense Ratio
Net profit Ratio
Stock Turnover Ratio
Fixed Asset Turnover
Ratio, Return on Total
Resources Ratio,
Return on Own Funds
Ratio, Earning per
Share Ratio, Debtors’
Turnover Ratio,

14. Format of balance sheet for ratio analysis
LIABILITIES ASSETS
NET WORTH/EQUITY/OWNED FUNDS
Share Capital/Partner’s Capital/Paid up Capital/
Owners Funds
Reserves ( General, Capital, Revaluation & Other
Reserves)
Credit Balance in P&L A/c
FIXED ASSETS : LAND & BUILDING, PLANT &
MACHINERIES
Original Value Less Depreciation
Net Value or Book Value or Written down value
LONG TERM LIABILITIES/BORROWED FUNDS :
Term Loans (Banks & Institutions)
Debentures/Bonds, Unsecured Loans, Fixed Deposits,
Other Long Term Liabilities
NON CURRENT ASSETS
Investments in quoted shares & securities
Old stocks or old/disputed book debts
Long Term Security Deposits
Other Misc. assets which are not current or fixed in
nature
CURRENT LIABILTIES
Bank Working Capital Limits such as
CC/OD/Bills/Export Credit
Sundry /Trade Creditors/Creditors/Bills Payable, Short
duration loans or deposits
Expenses payable & provisions against various items
CURRENT ASSETS : Cash & Bank Balance,
Marketable/quoted Govt. or other securities, Book
Debts/Sundry Debtors, Bills Receivables, Stocks &
inventory (RM,SIP,FG) Stores & Spares, Advance
Payment of Taxes, Prepaid expenses, Loans and
Advances recoverable within 12 months
INTANGIBLE ASSETS
Patent, Goodwill, Debit balance in P&L A/c, Preliminary
or Preoperative expenses

15. Some important notes
• Liabilities have Credit balance and Assets have Debit balance
• Current Liabilities are those which have either become due for payment
or shall fall due for payment within 12 months from the date of Balance
Sheet
• Current Assets are those which undergo change in their shape/form
within 12 months. These are also called Working Capital or Gross
Working Capital
• Net Worth & Long Term Liabilities are also called Long Term Sources
of Funds
• Current Liabilities are known as Short Term Sources of Funds
• Long Term Liabilities & Short Term Liabilities are also called Outside
Liabilities
• Current Assets are Short Term Use of Funds

16. Some important notes
• Assets other than Current Assets are Long Term Use of Funds
• Installments of Term Loan Payable in 12 months are to be taken as
Current Liability only for Calculation of Current Ratio & Quick Ratio.
• Investments in Govt. Securities to be treated current only if these
are marketable and due. Investments in other securities are to be
treated as Current if they are quoted. Investments in
allied/associate/sister units or firms to be treated as Non-current.
• Bonus Shares as issued by capitalization of General reserves and
as such do not affect the Net Worth. With Rights Issue, change
takes place in Net Worth and Current Ratio.

17. Groups of Financial Ratios
Liquidity
Activity
Debt
Profitability

18. Liquidity

19. Analyzing Liquidity
Liquidity refers to the solvency of the
firm's overall financial position, i.e. a
"liquid firm" is one that can easily
meet its short-term obligations as they
come due.
A second meaning includes the
concept of converting an asset into
cash with little or no loss in value.

20. 1. Current Ratio : It is the relationship between the
current assets and current liabilities of a concern.
Current Ratio = Current Assets/Current Liabilities
If the Current Assets and Current Liabilities of a concern
are Rs.4,00,000 and Rs.2,00,000 respectively, then the
Current Ratio will be : Rs.4,00,000/Rs.2,00,000 = 2 : 1

21. Current Ratio
• Ideal level? – 2 : 1
• The ideal Current Ratio preferred by Banks is 1.33 : 1
• A ratio of 5 : 1 would imply the firm has Rs.5 of assets to cover
every Rs.1 in liabilities
• A ratio of 0.75 : 1 would suggest the firm has only 75p in assets
available to cover every Rs.1 it owes
• Too high – Might suggest that too much of its assets are tied up
in unproductive activities – too much stock, for example?
• Too low - risk of not being able to pay your way

22. 2. ACID TEST or QUICK RATIO or Liquid Ratio : It is the ratio
between Quick Current Assets and Current Liabilities.
Quick Current Assets : Cash/Bank Balances + Receivables upto 12 months +
Quickly realizable securities such as Govt. Securities or quickly marketable/quoted
shares and Bank Fixed Deposits
Acid Test or Quick Ratio = Quick Current Assets/Current Liabilities
(Current assets – stock-prepaid expenses) : liabilities
• 1.5:1 seen as ideal
• The omission of stock gives an indication of the cash the firm has in relation to its
liabilities (what it owes)
• A ratio of 3:1 therefore would suggest the firm has 3 times as much cash as it
owes – very healthy!
• A ratio of 0.5:1 would suggest the firm has twice as many liabilities as it has cash
to pay for those liabilities. This might put the firm under pressure but is not in
itself the end of the world!

23. 3. ABSOLUTE LIQUIDITY TEST or Cash Ratio : It is the ratio
between Absolute liquid assets and Current Liabilities.
Quick Current Assets : Cash/Bank Balances + Quickly realizable securities such as
Govt. Securities or quickly marketable/quoted shares and Bank Fixed Deposits
Absolute Liquidity Ratio = Absolute Liquid Assets/Current Liabilities
(Current assets – stock-receivables) : liabilities
0.5:1 seen as ideal
• The omission of stock and receivables gives an indication of the cash the firm
has in relation to its liabilities (what it owes)
• A ratio of 3:1 therefore would suggest the firm has 6 times as much cash as it
owes – very healthy!
• A ratio of 0.2:1 would suggest the firm has five times as many liabilities as it has
ready cash to pay for those liabilities. This might put the firm under pressure but
is not in itself the end of the world!
4. NET WORKING CAPITAL : Current Assets – Current Liabilities

24. Example :
Cash 50,000
Debtors 1,00,000
Inventories 1,50,000 Current Liabilities 1,00,000
Total Current Assets 3,00,000
Current Ratio = > 3,00,000/1,00,000 = 3:1
Quick Ratio = > 1,50,000/1,00,000 = 1.5:1
Absolute Liquidity Ratio = > 50,000/1,00,000 = .5:1
Net Working Capital => 300000-100000 = 200000

26. Analyzing Activity
Activity is a more sophisticated
analysis of a firm's liquidity,
evaluating the speed with which
certain accounts are converted
into sales or cash; also
measures a firm's efficiency

27. Inventory Turnover (IT)
Average Collection Period (ACP)
Average Payment Period (APP)
Fixed Asset Turnover (FAT)
Total Asset Turnover (TAT)
Cost of Goods Sold
IT =
Average Inventory
Accounts Receivable
ACP =
Annual Sales/360
Accounts Payable
APP=
Annual Purchases/360
Sales
FAT =
Net Fixed Assets
Sales
TAT =
Total Assets
Five Important Activity Measures

28. STOCK/INVENTORY TURNOVER RATIO :
STR = COGS/ Average Stock
Average Conversion period = 365/12/52
STR
Average Inventory or Stocks = (Opening Stock + Closing Stock)
-----------------------------------------
2
• This ratio indicates the number of times the inventory is rotated during
the relevant accounting period
• A high stock turnover might mean increased efficiency? But: dependent on
the
type of business – supermarkets might have high stock turnover ratios
whereas a shop selling high value musical instruments might have low stock
turnover ratio
• Low stock turnover could mean poor customer satisfaction if people are
not
buying the goods

29. DEBTORS TURNOVER RATIO : This is also called Debtors Velocity or
Average Collection Period or Period of Credit given .
DTR = Net Credit Sales/ Average Receivables
Average Collection period (Debtors Days) = 365/52/12
DTR
This ratio tells about the time taken to collect money from the
debtors
ACP:
• Shorter the better
• Gives a measure of how long it takes the business to recover debts
• Can be skewed by the degree of credit facility a firm offers

30. CREDITORS TURNOVER RATIO : This is also called Creditors Velocity Ratio,
which determines the creditor payment period.
CTR = Net Credit Purchase/ Average Payables
Average Payment period (Creditors Days) = 365/52/12
CTR
This ratio tells about the time available to make payment to the
creditors
APP:
• Higher the better
• Gives a measure of how long it takes the business to pay
its debts

31. ASSET TRUNOVER RATIO :
Net Sales/Tangible Assets
FIXED ASSET TURNOVER RATIO :
Net Sales /Fixed Assets
CURRENT ASSET TURNOVER RATIO :
Net Sales / Current Assets

32. Asset Turnover
• Asset Turnover = Sales turnover / assets
employed
• Using assets to generate profit
• Asset turnover x net profit margin = ROCE

33. Profitability

34. Profitability ratios measure the
overall performance of a firm and
its efficiency in managing assets,
liabilities, and equity.
Key Financial Ratios
Profitability Ratios

35. Profitability ratios include
• gross profit margin
• operating profit margin
• net profit margin
• cash flow margin
• return on total assets (ROA) or return on investment
(ROI)
• return on equity (ROE)
• cash return on assets
Key Financial Ratios
Profitability Ratios

36. Profitability
• Gross Profit Margin = Gross profit / turnover
x 100
• The higher the better
• Enables the firm to assess the impact of its
sales and how much it cost to generate
(produce) those sales
• A gross profit margin of 45% means that for
every £1 of sales, the firm makes 45p in gross
profit

37. Profitability
• Net Profit Margin = Net Profit / Turnover x 100
• Net profit takes into account the fixed costs involved
in production – the overheads
• Keeping control over fixed costs is important – could
be easy to overlook for example the amount of waste
- paper, stationery, lighting, heating, water, etc.
– e.g. – leaving a photocopier on overnight uses enough electricity to
make 5,300 A4 copies. (1,934,500 per year)
– 1 ream = 500 copies. 1 ream = £5.00 (on average)
– Total cost therefore = £19,345 per year – or 1 person’s salary

38. Profitability
• Operating Profit Margin = Operating Profit /
Turnover x 100
Measures overall operating efficiency and incorporates
all of the expenses associated with ordinary business
activities

39. Profitability
• Return on Capital Employed (ROCE) =
Profit / capital employed x 100
• Be aware that there are different
interpretations of what capital employed
means – see
http://www.bized.ac.uk/compfact/ratios/ror3.htm for more
information!

40. Profitability Ratios
Overall Efficiency and Performance
Measures ability to translate sales into
cash
Cash Flow Margin
Cash flow from operating activitiesCash flow from operating activities
Net salesNet sales

41. Profitability Ratios
Overall Efficiency and Performance
Measures overall efficiency of firm in
managing investment in assets and
generating profits
Return on Total Assets (ROA) or
Return on Investment (ROI)
Net earningsNet earnings
Total assetsTotal assets

42. Profitability Ratios
Overall Efficiency and Performance
Measures rate of return on stockholders’
investment
Return on Equity (ROE)
Net earningsNet earnings
Stockholders’ equityStockholders’ equity

43. Profitability Ratios
Overall Efficiency and Performance
Measures firm’s ability to generate cash
from the utilization of its assets
Cash Return on Assets
Cash flow from operating activitiesCash flow from operating activities
Total assetsTotal assets

44. Operating Ratio
Thais ratio establishes relationships between operating cost & net
sales. This ratio indicates the proportion that the cost of sales.
Cost of sale included direct cost of good sold & as well as other
operating expenses administration, selling & distribution
expenses
Operating ratio = Cost of good sold + operating expenses X 100
Net sale
= Operating cost X 100
Net sale
Cost of good sold = opening stock + purchase + direct expenses –
closing stock – GP
Operating expenses = administrative expenses + selling &
distribution expenses

45. OBJECTIVE & SIGNIFICANCE
Operating ration is the test of the operational
efficiency of the business .it shows the
percentage of sales that is absorbed by the cost
of sales & operating expenses.
This ratio serves following objective
1. To determine whether the cost content has
increased or decreased in the figure of sales.
2. To determine which element of the cost has
gone up.

46. Example:
Cost of good sales 6 lac
Operating expenses 40,000
Sales 8,20,000
Sales returns 20,000
Operating Ratio = Cost of good sold + operating expenses X 100
Net Sales
= 6 lac + 40000 X 100
820000-20000
= 640000 X 100
800000
= 80%

47. Profitability
• The higher the better
• Shows how effective the firm is in using its
capital to generate profit
• A ROCE of 25% means that it uses every
Rs.1 of capital to generate 25p in profit
• Partly a measure of efficiency in
organisation and use of capital

48. Key Financial Ratios
Leverage Ratios
Leverage ratios measure the extent of a
firm’s financing with debt relative to equity
and its ability to cover interest and other
fixed charges.

49. Key Financial Ratios
Leverage Ratios
Leverage ratios include
• Debt ratio
• Long-term debt to total capitalization
• Debt to equity
• Times interest earned
• Fixed charge coverage
• Cash flow adequacy

50. Analyzing Debt
Debt is a true "double-edged" sword as it
allows for the generation of profits with the
use of other people's (creditors) money, but
creates claims on earnings with a higher
priority than those of the firm's owners.
Financial Leverage is a term used to
describe the magnification of risk and return
resulting from the use of fixed-cost financing
such as debt and preferred stock.

51. SOLVENCY RATIOS
The term ‘solvency’ implies ability of an
enterprise to meet its long-term indebtedness
and thus, solvency ratios convey an
enterprises ability to meet its long-term
obligations. Some important solvency ratios
are :
• Debt-Equity Ratio,
• Interest Coverage Ratio,
• Debt to Total Funds Ratio,
• Fixed Asset Ratio,

52. Debt Equity Ratio.
The debt-equity ratio is worked out to ascertain soundness of the
long-term financial policies of the firm.
The ratio ascertained as follows;
Debt-Equity Ratio = Debt (Long-Term Loans)
Equity (Shareholders’ Funds)
Dept – equity ratio indicates the proportion between shareholders’
funds and the long-term borrowed funds. A higher ratio indicates
a risky financial position while a lower ratio indicates safer
financial position.

53. Objective and Significance
This ratio is sufficient to assess the soundness
of long-term financial position. It also
indicates the extent to which the firm
depends upon outsiders for its existence

54. Ascertain Dept-Equity ratio;
Equity share capital 2,00,000
General reserve 1,60,000
10% debenture 1,50,000
Current liabilities 1,00,000
Preliminary expenses 10,000
Solution ;
Dept-equity Ratio = Dept
Equity
Dept = debentures = Rs. 1,50,000
Equity= Equity Share Capital + General Reserve- preliminary Expenses
= 2,00,000+1,60,000-10,000
= 3,50,000
Dept-Equity ratio= 1,50,000
3,50,000
= 15:35= 3:7

55. Interest Coverage ratio:
when a business borrows money, the lender is
interested in finding out whether the business
would earn sufficient profit to pay periodically the
interest charge. A ratio which expresses this is
called Interest Coverage Ratio or Dept service
Ratio or fixed charges cover.
This ratio is determined by dividing profit before
interest by the interest charges
Interest Coverage Ratio =Net profit before interest and tax
Interest on fixed (long-term) loans or
Debentures

56. Objective and Significance :
This ratio indicates how many times the profit
covers fixed interest. It measures the margin
of safety for the lenders. The higher the
number, more secure the lender is in respect
of his periodical interest income.

57. Example:
The operating profit of Exe. Ltd. After charging interesr on
debentures and tax is Rs 1,00,000. The amount of interest is Rs
20,000 and the provision for tax has been made at Rs 40,000.
Calculate the interest coverage ratio.
Solution:
Interest Coverage Ratio = net profit before interest and tax
Interest charges
= 1,60,000
20,000

58. DEBT TO TOTAL FUNDS RATIO
• The Debt to Total Funds Ratio is a measure for long
term financial soundness.
• Debt Total Funds Ratio = Debt
Equity + Debt
• Objective and Significance:
The main purpose of the ratio is to
determine the relative stock of outsiders and
shareholders.

59. Calculate Debt to Total Funds Ratio:
9% Pref. Share Capital 10,00,000
Equity Share Capital 20,00,000
Reserves 10,00,000
10% Debentures 30,00,000
Loans From Industrial Finance corporation 20,00,000
Current liabilities 8,00,000
Debt to Total Funds Ratio = Long-term loans
Shareholders funds + Long-term loans
= 30,00,000 + 20,00,000
10,00,000 + 20,00,000 + 10,00,000 + 30,00,000
+ 20,00,000
= Rs. 50,00,000 = 5 : 9 or 0.56.
Rs. 90,00,000

60. FIXED ASSETS RATIO
Fixed Assets Ratio
= Shareholders’ funds + Long-term loans
Net Fixed Assets
Objective and Significance.
This ratio indicates as to what extent
fixed assets are financed out of long-term
solvency.

61. Calculate Fixed Assets Ratio:
Share capital 2,00,000
Reserves 50,000
9% Debentures 2,00,000
Trade Creditors 75,000
Plant and Machinery 2,00,000
Land and Building 2,00,000
Furniture 50,000
Trade Debtors 60,000
Cash Balance 40,000
Bills Payable 24,000
Stock 80,000
Fixed Assets Ratio = Long-term Funds
Fixed Assets
= 2,00,000 + 50,000 + 2,00,000 = 4,50,000 = 1
2,00,000 + 2,00,000 + 50,000 4,50,000

62. RETURN ON EQUITY
 Common shareholders are entittled to the residual
profit.The rate of divident is not fixed and earning may be
distributed to shareholders or retained in the business.
 A ROE is calculated to se the profitability of owner’s
investment.
 ROE indicates how well the firm has used the resources
of owners.
 It is a most important relationship in financial analysis.
Formula:
ROE= PAI .
Net Worth Equity

63. Earning per share
• It is a measure for calculating the profitability of
shareholder’s investment.
• EPS is calculated as;EPS=PAT/NO. OF
OUTSTANDING SHARES
• EPS shows the profitability of the firm on share
basis,it does’t reflect how much is paid as
dividend and how much is retained in the
business? But as profitability index as it is
valuable.
• The higher the EPS,the more attractive will be
the investment plan or vice-versa

64. Return on investment
 The term investment refer to total asset or net asset.
 the conventional approach of calculating ROI is to divide PAT by
investment,investment represents pool of funds,supplied by
shareholders and lenders,
 while pat represents residue income of shareholders.
 The formulae for calculating ROI is;
 ROI=ROTA=EBIT(1-T)/ TA OR NA
 Since taxes are not controllable by management and firm’s
opportunities far availing tax incentives differ,it may be more prudent
to use before tax measure of ROI,thus the before tax ratios are;
 ROI=ROTA=EBIT/TA OR NA

65. Investment/Shareholders

66. Key Financial Ratios
Market Ratios
Market ratios measure returns to
stockholders and the value the
marketplace puts on a company’s stock.
Market ratios include
• earnings per common shareearnings per common share
• price-to-earningsprice-to-earnings
• dividend payoutdividend payout
• dividend yielddividend yield

67. Market Ratios
Earnings per Common Share
Provides the investor with a common
denominator to gauge investment
returns
Earnings per Common Share
Net earningsNet earnings
Average shares outstandingAverage shares outstanding

68. Market Ratios
Price-to-Earnings
Relates earnings per common share to
the market price at which the stock
trades, expressing the “multiple” that the
stock market places on a firm’s earnings
Price-to-Earnings
Market price of common stockMarket price of common stock
Earnings per shareEarnings per share

69. PEG Ratio
• The market is usually more concerned
about the future than the present, it is
always looking for some way to figure out
what is going to happen in the companies
future.
• PEG = (P/E) / (projected growth in
earnings)

70. • The lower the PEG number, the less you
pay for each unit of future earnings
growth. So even a stock with a high P/E,
but high projected earning growth may be
a good value.

71. You have a stock with a low P/E. Since
the stock has a low P/E, you start do
wonder why the stock has a low P/E. Is it
that the stock market does not like the
stock? Or is it that the stock market has
overlooked a stock that is actually
fundamentally very strong and of good
value?

72. • If the PEG ratio is big (or close to the P/E
ratio), kind of stock that the stock market
thinks is of not much value.
On the other hand, if the PEG ratio is
small (or very small as compared to the
P/E ratio, kind of fundamentally strong
stock that the market has overlooked for
some reason.

73. Market Ratios
Dividend Payout
Determined by the formula cash
dividends per share divided by earnings
per share
Dividend Payout
Dividends per shareDividends per share
Earnings per shareEarnings per share

74. Market Ratios
Dividend Yield
Shows the relationship between cash
dividends and market price
Dividend Yield
Dividends per shareDividends per share
Market price of common stockMarket price of common stock

75. Analyzing the Data
There are five broad areas that would typically
constitute a fundamental analysis of financial
statements:
• Background on the firm, industry, economy,
and outlook
• Short-term liquidity
• Operating efficiency
• Capital structure and long-term solvency
• Profitability

76. Background: Economy, Industry, and Firm
Economic developments and the actions of
competitors affect the ability of any business
enterprise to perform successfully.
It is necessary to evaluate the environment in
which the firm conducts business.
This process involves blending hard facts with
guess and estimates.

77. Short-Term Liquidity
Especially important to creditors, suppliers,
management, and others who are concerned
with the ability of a firm to meet near-term
demands for cash
Should include analysis of selected financial
ratios and a comparison with industry
averages
Predicts the future ability of the firm to meet
prospective needs for cash

78. Operating Efficiency
Turnover ratios measure the operating
efficiency of a firm.
The efficiency in managing a company’s
accounts receivable, inventory, and
accounts payable is discussed in the
short-term liquidity analysis.

79. Capital Structure and Long-Term Solvency
Analytical process includes an
evaluation of the amount and
proportion of debt in a firm’s capital
structure as well as the ability to
service debt.
Debt financing implies risk and
leverage.

80. Profitability
Analysis of how well the firm has
performed in terms of profitability,
beginning with the evaluation of
several key ratios

81. DuPont Framework
• The DuPont framework was developed
internally at DuPont around 1920.
• It provides a systematic approach to
identifying general factors causing ROE to
deviate from normal.
• It establishes a framework for computing
financial ratios to yield more in-depth analysis
of a company’s areas of strength and
weakness.

82. The number of
pennies in profits
generated from
each dollar of sales
The number of dollars
in sales generated by
each dollar of assets
The number of
dollars of assets a
company is able to
acquire using each
dollar invested by
stockholders

83. $180,000
$5,700,000

84. $5,700,000

85. $5,700,000
$2,278,000

86. $2,278,000

87. $2,278,000
$1,468,000

88. DuPont Framework
Coleville’s ROE for 2011 is 12.3%. The ROE for 2010
would be calculated the same way.

89. Relating the Ratios
The Du Pont System
Helpful to complete the evaluation of a firm by
considering the interrelationship among the
individual ratios
Looks at how the various pieces of financial
measurement work together to produce an
overall return
Helps analyst see how the firm’s decisions
and activities over the course of an
accounting period interact to produce
overall return to shareholders

90. Relating the Ratios
The Du Pont System
The first three ratios reveal that return
on investment is a product of the net
profit margin and the total asset
turnover.
The second three ratios show how the
return on equity is the product of
return on investment and financial
leverage.

91. Relating the Ratios
The Du Pont System
By reviewing this series of relationships, the
analyst can identify strengths and
weaknesses as well as trace potential
causes of problems in the overall financial
condition and performance of the firm.
Analyst can evaluate changes in condition and
performance.
Evaluation can then focus on specific areas
contributing to changes.

92. Projections and
Pro Forma Statements
Pro forma financial statements are
projections based on a set of
assumptions regarding
• future revenues
• expenses
• level of investment in assets
• financing methods and costs
• working capital management

93. Projections and
Pro Forma Statements
Pro forma financial statements are used
primarily for long-range planning and
long-term credit decisions.
Many firms have made up their own
definitions of pro forma statements,
which should not be confused with the
pro forma statement described above.

94. Summary of Analysis
Analysis of any firm’s financial statements
consists of a mixture of steps and pieces
that interrelate and affect each other.
No one part of the analysis should be
interpreted in isolation.
The last step of analysis is to integrate the
separate pieces into a whole, leading to
conclusions about the business enterprise.

95. LIABILITES ASSETS
Capital 180 Net Fixed Assets 400
Reserves 20 Inventories 150
Term Loan 300 Cash 50
Bank C/C 200 Receivables 150
Trade Creditors 50 Goodwill 50
Provisions 50
800 800
EXERCISE 1
a. What is the Net Worth : Capital + Reserve = 200
b. Tangible Net Worth is : Net Worth - Goodwill = 150
c. Outside Liabilities : TL + CC + Creditors + Provisions = 600
d. Net Working Capital : C A - C L = 350 - 250 = 50
e. Current Ratio : C A / C L = 350 / 300 = 1.17 : 1
f. Quick Ratio : Quick Assets / C L = 200/300 = 0.66 : 1

96. EXERCISE 2
LIABILITIES 2005-06 2006-07 2005-06 2006-07
Capital 300 350 Net Fixed
Assets
730 750
Reserves 140 160 Security Electricity 30 30
Bank Term Loan 320 280 Investments 110 110
Bank CC (Hyp) 490 580 Raw Materials 150 170
Unsec. Long T L 150 170 S I P 20 30
Creditors (RM) 120 70 Finished Goods 140 170
Bills Payable 40 80 Cash 30 20
Expenses Payable 20 30 Receivables 310 240
Provisions 20 40 Loans/Advance
s
30 190
Goodwill 50 50
Total 1600 1760 1600 1760
1. Tangible Net Worth for 1st
Year : ( 300 + 140) - 50 = 390
2. Current Ratio for 2nd
Year : (170 + 20 + 240 + 2+ 190 ) / (580+70+80+70)
820 /800 = 1.02
3. Debt Equity Ratio for 1st
Year : 320+150 / 390 = 1.21

97. Exercise 3.
LIABIITIES ASSETS
Equity Capital 200 Net Fixed Assets 800
Preference Capital 100 Inventory 300
Term Loan 600 Receivables 150
Bank CC (Hyp) 400 Investment In Govt.
Secu.
50
Sundry Creditors 100 Preliminary Expenses 100
Total 1400 1400
1. Debt Equity Ratio will be : 600 / (200+100) = 2 : 1
2. Tangible Net Worth : Only equity Capital i.e. = 200
3. Total Outside Liabilities / Total Tangible Net Worth : (600+400+100) /
200
= 11 : 2
4. Current Ratio will be : (300 + 150 + 50 ) / (400 + 100 ) = 1 : 1

98. LIABILITIES ASSETS
Capital + Reserves 355 Net Fixed Assets 265
P & L Credit Balance 7 Cash 1
Loan From S F C 100 Receivables 125
Bank Overdraft 38 Stocks 128
Creditors 26 Prepaid Expenses 1
Provision of Tax 9 Intangible Assets 30
Proposed Dividend 15
550 550
Q. What is the Current Ratio ? Ans : (125 +128+1+30) / (38+26+9+15)
: 255/88 = 2.89 : 1
Q What is the Quick Ratio ? Ans : (125+1)/ 88 = 1.43 : 11
Q. What is the Debt Equity Ratio ? Ans : LTL / Tangible NW
= 100 / ( 362 – 30)
= 100 / 332 = 0.30 : 1
Exercise 4.

99. LIABILITIES ASSETS
Capital + Reserves 355 Net Fixed Assets 265
P & L Credit Balance 7 Cash 1
Loan From S F C 100 Receivables 125
Bank Overdraft 38 Stocks 128
Creditors 26 Prepaid Expenses 1
Provision of Tax 9 Intangible Assets 30
Proposed Dividend 15
550 550
Q . What is the Proprietary Ratio ? Ans : (T NW / Tangible Assets) x 100
[ (362 - 30 ) / (550 – 30)] x 100
(332 / 520) x 100 = 64%
Q . What is the Net Working Capital ?
Ans : C. A - C L. = 255 - 88 = 167
Q . If Net Sales is Rs.15 Lac, then What would be the Stock Turnover
Ratio in Times ? Ans : Net Sales / Average Inventories/Stock
1500 / 128 = 12 times approximately
Exercise 4. contd…

100. LIABILITIES ASSETS
Capital + Reserves 355 Net Fixed Assets 265
P & L Credit Balance 7 Cash 1
Loan From S F C 100 Receivables 125
Bank Overdraft 38 Stocks 128
Creditors 26 Prepaid Expenses 1
Provision of Tax 9 Intangible Assets 30
Proposed Dividend 15
550 550
Q. What is the Debtors Velocity Ratio ? If the sales are Rs. 15 Lac.
Ans : ( Average Debtors / Net Sales) x 12 = (125 / 1500) x 12
= 1 month
Q. What is the Creditors Velocity Ratio if Purchases are Rs.10.5 Lac ?
Ans : (Average Creditors / Purchases ) x 12 = (26 / 1050) x 12 = 0.3 months
Exercise 4. contd…

101. Exercise 5. : Profit to sales is 2% and amount of profit is say
Rs.5 Lac. Then What is the amount of Sales ?
Answer : Net Profit Ratio = (Net Profit / Sales ) x 100
2 = (5 x100) /Sales
Therefore Sales = 500/2 = Rs.250 Lac
Exercise 6. A Company has Net Worth of Rs.5 Lac, Term
Liabilities of Rs.10 Lac. Fixed Assets worth RS.16 Lac and
Current Assets are Rs.25 Lac. There is no intangible Assets
or other Non Current Assets. Calculate its Net Working
Capital.
Answer
Total Assets = 16 + 25 = Rs. 41 Lac
Total Liabilities = NW + LTL + CL = 5 + 10+ CL = 41 Lac
Current Liabilities = 41 – 15 = 26 Lac
Therefore Net Working Capital = C. A – C.L
= 25 – 26 = (- )1 Lac

102. Exercise 7 : Current Ratio of a concern is 1 : 1. What will be the Net
Working Capital ?
Answer : It suggest that the Current Assets is equal to Current Liabilities
hence the NWC would be NIL
Exercise 8 : Suppose Current Ratio is 4 : 1. NWC is Rs.30,000/-. What
is the amount of Current Assets ?
Answer : 4 x - 1 x = 30,000
Therefore x = 10,000 i.e. Current Liabilities is Rs.10,000
Hence Current Assets would be 4x = 4 x 10,000 = Rs.40,000/-
Exercise 9. The amount of Term Loan installment is Rs.10000/ per
month, monthly average interest on TL is Rs.5000/-. If the amount
of Depreciation is Rs.30,000/- p.a. and PAT is Rs.2,70,000/-. What
would be the DSCR ?
DSCR = (PAT + Depr + Annual Intt.) / Annual Intt + Annual Installment
= (270000 + 30000 + 60000 ) / 60000 + 120000
= 360000 / 180000 = 2

103. Exercise 10 : Total Liabilities of a firm is Rs.100 Lac and Current Ratio
is 1.5 : 1. If Fixed Assets and Other Non Current Assets are to the tune
of Rs. 70 Lac and Debt Equity Ratio being 3 : 1. What would be the Long
Term Liabilities?
Ans : We can easily arrive at the amount of Current Asset being Rs. 30 Lac
i.e. ( Rs. 100 L - Rs. 70 L ). If the Current Ratio is 1.5 : 1, then Current
Liabilities works out to be Rs. 20 Lac. That means the aggregate of Net
Worth and Long Term Liabilities would be Rs. 80 Lacs. If the Debt Equity
Ratio is 3 : 1 then Debt works out to be Rs. 60 Lacs and equity Rs. 20 Lacs.
Therefore the Long Term Liabilities would be Rs.60 Lac.
Exercise 11 : Current Ratio is say 1.2 : 1 . Total of balance sheet being
Rs.22 Lac. The amount of Fixed Assets + Non Current Assets is Rs. 10
Lac. What would be the Current Liabilities?
Ans : When Total Assets is Rs.22 Lac then Current Assets would be 22 – 10
i.e Rs. 12 Lac. Thus we can easily arrive at the Current Liabilities figure which
should be Rs. 10 Lac

104. THANK YOU
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