This document discusses different types of goods: private goods, public goods, common resources, and natural monopolies. It explains that public goods are non-excludable and non-rival, so the free-rider problem prevents private markets from providing them. Common resources are rival but non-excludable, leading to overuse under open access and the "tragedy of the commons". The document also covers cost-benefit analysis and the role of property rights in addressing market failures for non-private goods.

1. Public Goods and
Common Resources
Chapter 11
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“The best things in life are free. . .”
Free goods provide a special challenge for
economic analysis
Most goods in our economy are allocated
in markets…
…for these goods, prices are the
signals that guide the decisions of
buyers and sellers.

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“The best things in life are free. . .”
When goods are free, people do
not have the incentive to produce.
Market forces are absent.
Government must step in.

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The Different Kinds of Goods
When thinking about the various
goods in the economy, it is useful to
group them according to two
characteristics:
 Is the good excludable?
 Is the good rival?

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The Different Kinds of Goods
Excludability
 People can be prevented from enjoying
the good.
 Laws recognize and enforce private
property rights.

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The Different Kinds of Goods
 Rivalness
 One person’s use of the good
diminishes another person’s
enjoyment of it.

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Four Types of Goods
Private Goods
Public Goods
Common Resources
Natural Monopolies

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Types of Goods
Private Goods
Are both excludable and rival.
Public Goods
Are neither excludable nor rival.

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Types of Goods
Common Resources
Are rival but not excludable.
Natural Monopolies
Are excludable but not rival.

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Types of Goods
Rival?
Yes No
Yes
Private Goods
 Ice-cream cones
 Clothing
 Congested toll roads
Natural Monopolies
 Fire protection
 Cable TV
 Uncongested toll
roads
No
Common Resources
 Fish in the ocean
 The environment
 Congested nontoll
roads
Public Goods
 National defense
 Knowledge
 Uncongested nontoll
roads
Excludable?

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The Free-Rider Problem
A free-rider is a person who
receives the benefit of a good
but avoids paying for it.

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The Free-Rider Problem
Since people cannot be excluded from
enjoying the benefits of a public good,
individuals may withhold paying for
the good hoping that others will pay
for it.
The free-rider problem prevents
private markets from supplying public
goods.

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Solving the Free-Rider
Problem
The government can decide to provide
the public good if the total benefits
exceed the costs.
The government can make everyone
better off by providing the public good
and paying for it with tax revenue.

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Some Important Public Goods
National Defense
Basic Research
Programs to Fight Poverty

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Are Lighthouses
Public Goods?

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Cost-Benefit Analysis
 In order to decide whether to provide a
public good or not, the total benefits of all
those who use the good must be compared
to the costs of providing and maintaining
the public good.
 Cost benefit analysis estimates the total
costs and benefits of a good to society as a
whole.

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Cost-Benefit Analysis
A cost-benefit analysis would be used to
estimate the total costs and benefits of the
project to society as a whole.
It is difficult to do because of the absence of
prices needed to estimate social benefits and
resource costs.
The value of life, the consumer’s time, and
aesthetics are difficult to assess.

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Common Resources
Common resources, like public
goods, are not excludable. They are
available free of charge to anyone
who wishes to use them.

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Common Resources
Common resources are rival
goods because one person’s use
of the common resource reduces
other people’s use.

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Tragedy of the Commons
The Tragedy of the Commons is a story
with a general lesson: When one person
uses a common resource, he or she
diminishes another person’s enjoyment
of it.
Common resources tend to be used
excessively when individuals are not
charged for their usage.
This creates a negative externality.

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Examples of Common
Resources
Clean air and water
Oil pools
Congested roads
Fish, whales, and other
wildlife

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Why Isn’t the Cow Extinct?
(As opposed to other animals!)
Private
Ownership and
the Profit
Motive!

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Importance of
Property Rights
The market fails to allocate resources
efficiently when property rights are
not well-established (i.e. some item of
value does not have an owner with the
legal authority to control it).

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Importance of
Property Rights
When the absence of property
rights causes a market failure, the
government can potentially solve
the problem.