Psychophysiology of Yoga Postures: Ancient and Modern Perspectives of Asanas

Psychophysiology of Yoga Postures:
Ancient and Modern Perspectives of Asana
Yogacharya Dr Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani MBBS, MD (AM).
Director, Centre for Yoga Therapy, Education and Research (CYTER), Sri Balaji
Vidyapeeth University, Pillaiyarkuppam, Pondicherry – 607 403
and
Yogachemmal Dr Meena Ramanathan PhD (Yoga).
Deputy Director, Centre for Yoga Therapy, Education and Research (CYTER), Sri
Balaji Vidyapeeth University, Pillaiyarkuppam, Pondicherry – 607 403
Abstract:
Asana is usually defined as a body posture held with stability and ease by Patanjali.
Hathayoga Pradipika emphasises that asana helps bring about stability in health and
suppleness of body. As intra-thoracic, intra-abdominal pressure-volume changes
affect internal organs and systems, it is plausible that asana-s produce changes
through mechanisms both local as well as general. This chapter takes a look at
various studies that have explored human physiology in relation to asana. Some
examples are glucose metabolism, changes in energy expenditure, ventilatory
responses, oxygen consumption as well as respiratory, neuromuscular and
cardiovascular parameters. It also explores the neuromuscular reflex arcs dynamics
that position asana as an excellent system to restore psychosomatic harmony and
balance. It needs to be stressed that the actual efforts being made in asana are of a
somato-psychic nature while benefits that accrue are of a psychosomatic nature. It is
suggested that Hathayoga helps us evolve out of our primitive sub-human tendencies
thus developing human and humane qualities.
Introduction:
Yoga considers that every individual is not merely limited to only the physical level
of existence but is made up of a multi-fold universal nature. Concepts of pancha kosha
(five-fold aspects of our existence) and trisharira (threefold aspect of our bodily
nature) helps understand the multi-dimensional real nature of the individual, where
health results from a dynamic interaction at all levels of existence.
The sister sciences of Yoga and Ayurveda consider the human body to be made up
of seven substances, the sapta dhatus which are rasa (chyle), rakta (blood), maamsa
(flesh), medas (adipose), asthi (bone), majjaa (marrow) and sukra (semen). Both these
ancient health sciences understand the importance of tridosha (three humors) whose
balance is vital for optimal health and functioning. Health is also further understood
as harmonious balance of prana vayus and upa prana vayus (major and minor energies
of physiological function respectively), coupled with stability of nadis (subtle energy
channels) and harmonious flow of energy through all chakras (major energy centres
correlated to the psycho-neuro-immuno-endocrine axis)
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Bhavanani AB and Ramanathan M. Psychophysiology of Yoga Postures: Ancient and Modern Perspectives of Asanas. In: Shirley Telles
and Nilkamal Singh editors. Research-Based Perspectives on the Psychophysiology of Yoga. IGI Global, Editors:,2017. p.1-16

The Hathayoga Pradipika echoes these qualities when Yogi Svatmarama says,
“Slimness of body, lustre on face, clarity of voice, brightness of eyes, freedom from
disease, control over seminal ejaculation,
stimulation of gastric heat and purification of
subtle energy channels are marks of success in
Hathayoga” (vapuh krsatvam vadane prasannataa
naadasputatvam nayane sunirmale arogataa
bindujayogni diipanam naadiivishuddhir hatha
siddhi lakshanam- Hathayoga Pradipika II-78).
(Bhatt, 2004)
In the Patanjala Yoga Darshana we find an
excellent description of the attributes of bodily
perfection (kaya sampat). (Bhavanani, 2011) It is
said in Vibhuti Pada that perfection of body
includes beauty, gracefulness, strength, and
adamantine hardness (rupa lavanya bala vajra
samhanana kaya sampat-Yoga Darshan III: 47).
In the Gheranda Samhita, a classical treatise on
Hathayoga, the human body is likened to an
unbaked earthen clay pot that is incapable of
holding the contents and dissolves when faced
with the challenge of water. It is only through intense heat generated by practice of
yoga that the human body gets baked, making it fit to hold the Divine Spirit (aama
kumbha ivaambhastho jeeryamanah sada gatah yoganalena samdahya ghata shuddhim
samacaret- Gheranda Samhita I: 8). (Bhatt, 2004)
What is asana?
Asana, the third limb of Maharishi Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga is usually defined as a
body posture held with stability and ease (sthirasukhamasanam). (Bhavanani, 2011)
Hathayoga Pradipika emphasises this by saying that asana helps bring about stability
in health and suppleness of body (kuryat tad asanam stairyam arogyam ca
angalaghavam). (Bhatt, 2004) Though the term pose is also often used, the noted yoga
scholar Georg Feuerstein has referred to it as "poise". (Feuerstein, 2010) This concept
is tenable as asana seems to begin at the external level but in fact influences the
emotions, mind and spirit ultimately. The Tejobindu Upanishad says that asana is a
state of the body which gives stability that enables one to practice long drawn
meditation (sukhenaiva bhavedyasminnajasraṃ brahmacintanam āsanaṃ tadvijānīyādanyat
sukhavināśanam). (Ramanathan, 2007)
As the performance of asana can be perceived externally and has similarities to other
forms of physical activity, it has garnered attention worldwide and many
researchers have studied effects of this limb of yoga. However many adherents to
the traditional yoga perspective have lamented the fact that asana has taken over the
‘Yoga World’ and felt that other aspects of yoga have been neglected in the process
of focussing on body culture alone.
Maharishi Patanjali provides a
most concise definition of asana,
the means to attain it and benefit
of doing so in Sadhana Pada of his
Yoga Darshan. (Bhavanani, 2011;
Bhavanani 2014)
He defines asana as
sthirasukhamasanam, a state of
wellbeing wherein one is
established in a steady state of
ease. (PYS II: 46)
The methodology is given as
prayatnashaithilya anantya
samaapattibhyaam, loosening of
effort and contemplation of the
infinite. (PYS II: 47)
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For any posture to qualify as an asana, it can be said that certain pre-requisites need
to be fulfilled.
1. It must be stable and held with ease.
2. It must be done with awareness/mindfulness.
3. It should have the potential to bring about changes in the attitude of the
practitioner.
In our daily activities, most humans often move only in a few directions, and even
those are within a limited range of movement. In the practice of asana, movements
are done in all three planes, enhancing full range of movement, thus helping retain
the ability to perform full and free movements, especially as one ages.
Classification of asana:
According to the Shiva Samhita and Gheranda Samhita it is claimed that there are 8.4
million asana-s. However the text goes on only to describe 32 of them. The Hathayoga
Pradipika describes 15 and the Yoga Bhasya 11, while Hatha Ratnavali and Goraksha
Samhita enumerate 84. The general consensus in most traditional texts is that the
preeminent four are: siddhasana, padmasana, simhasana and bhadrasana of which
siddhasana is further extolled as the best of all. (Bhavanani, 2010; Bhavanani, 2014)
Asana-s may be classified in many ways depending upon the starting position,
nature of performance and purpose, or individual application of the technique. They
are commonly classified into cultural, and contemplative classes (inducing
meditation and relaxation) (Sovik & Bhavanani, 2016) but can also be classified
based on spinal movements as front bending, back bending, twisting, lateral
stretching etc.
Another classification based on nature of performance would be: dynamic and static.
Table 1: Classification of asana-s based on starting position
Supine ardha halasana (half plough), uttan padasana (legs elevated), chakrasana
(wheel)
Prone bhujangasana (cobra pose), shalabhasana (locust pose), noukasana (boat
pose), dhanurasana (Bow pose)
Sitting padmasana (lotus pose) matsyendrasana (spinal twist pose), paschimottasana
(forward bend pose), vajrasana (thunderbolt pose)
Standing trikonasana (triangle pose), veerasana (warrior pose), vrikshasana (tree
pose)
Another classification may be made functionally depending on the therapeutic
application of asana (Kogler, 1995):
 Asana-s for compensation: Compensative asana promotes general
harmonious development of body by activating insufficiently loaded muscle
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groups and corrects imbalances of the motor system through regular and
systematic practice. During intensive training activity, muscle groups are
loaded individually, resulting in partial loading depending on the activity
undertaken.
 Asana-s for regeneration: Regeneration is a biological process fostered to
regain functional abilities and prevent injuries and hence is essential after
intensive training as done in sports. The basic three types of muscle relaxation
occurring in regenerative asana-s are:
i. Stretching involving relaxation of shortened and painful muscles.
ii. Post isometric relaxation through active stretching of muscles thus
inhibiting motor neurons thus facilitating deeper relaxation.
iii. Anti-gravitational relaxation using natural resistance against which
muscles are isometrically contracted, held firm and then released. It
can be done without assistance and deep relaxation follows the active
phase of muscle contraction (spanda nishpanda).
 Asana-s for supplementation : Supplementary asana-s are an effective means
to avoid monotony and boredom that often occurs in sports / exercise
training as it offers a form of active rest by balancing training load. It can
effectively restore energy and provide psycho-physical harmony.
Psychophysiological effects:
Different yogic techniques are bound to have different psycho-physiological effects
on each and every cell of the human body. This will of course depend on the various
body systems, organs and tissues involved in the performance of such practices.
(Gitananda Giri, 1976) As the role of the spinal column is emphasised in yoga, it
follows logically that the effects of forward bending postures would be different
from those of back bending ones and these in turn may be different from the
physiological effects of twisting postures. As both intra-thoracic and intra-abdominal
pressure-volume changes affect the cardiovascular system, it is plausible that such
asana-s will produce changes in the heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP).
However there is a lacunae of studies on such effects and there are few studies (Bera,
1998; Malhotra, 2005; Bhavanani, 2014) comparing cardiovascular effects of different
asanas.
32 asana-s mentioned in Gheranda Samhita: Siddam (perfect), padmam (lotus), bhadram
(fierce), muktam (free), vajram (adamant), swastikam (auspicious), simham (lion),
gomukham (cow-face), viram (heroic), dhanurm (bow), mritam (corpse), guptam (hidden),
matsyam (fish), matsendram (sage Matsyendranath), goraksham (sage Gorakshanath),
paschimottanam (posterior stretch), utkatam (hazardous), sankatam (dangerous),
mayuram (peacock), kukkutam (cock), kurmam (tortoise), uttana mandukam (upright
frog), uttana kurmakam (upright tortoise), vriksham (tree), mandukam (frog), garudam
(eagle), vrisham (bull), salabham (locust), makaram (crocodile), ushtram (camel),
bhugangam (snake), yogasanam (yoga).
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The Swara Yoga tradition (Bhavanani, 2007) emphasises subtle differences existing
between energy flows on the right and left sides (pingala and ida nadi respectively)
manifesting through the ultradian rhythmicity of right or left nostril dominance
(surya and chandra swara respectively). Autonomic function is affected by right-left
brain activity (Werntz, 1983; Shannahoff-Khalsa, 2002) and as there is a sensory-
motor crossover relationship between right and left sides of the body and the
contralateral hemispheres, leading to speculation of differences in autonomic
function depending on techniques performed utilising either right or left sides.
Various mechanisms have been postulated to be responsible for beneficial psycho-
physical effects of yoga. Postulates include restoration of autonomic balance as well
as an improvement in restorative, regenerative and rehabilitative capacities of the
individual. A healthy inner sense of wellbeing produced by a life of yoga is believed
to percolate down through different levels of human existence from higher to lower
levels producing health and wellbeing of a holistic nature. Streeter et al proposed a
theory that yoga practices reduce allostatic load in stress response systems thus
restoring optimal homeostasis. (Streeter, 2007; Streeter, 2012)
They hypothesized that stress produces an:
 Imbalance of the autonomic nervous system with decreased parasympathetic
and increased sympathetic activity,
 Under activity of the gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA) system, the primary
inhibitory neurotransmitter system, and
 Increased allostatic load.
They further hypothesized that yoga-based practices i) correct under activity of the
parasympathetic nervous system and GABA systems in part through stimulation of
the vagus nerves, the main peripheral pathway of the parasympathetic nervous
system, and ii) reduce allostatic load.
According to the theory proposed by them, decreased parasympathetic nervous
system and GABAergic activity that underlies stress-related disorders can be
corrected by yoga practices resulting in amelioration of disease symptoms. Innes et
al had earlier postulated two interconnected pathways by which yoga reduces the
risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders through the mechanisms of
parasympathetic activation coupled with decreased reactivity of sympathoadrenal
system and hypothalomo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. (Innes, 2005; Innes, 2007)
Neuro-muscular correlates of asana and the spinal reflex arc:
In modern yoga teaching and practice, stretching is the main focus of asana more
often than not. This makes it imperative that we understand the anatomical and
neuro-physiological aspects of stretching. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF) stretching techniques have become popular and are extensively cited as the
most effective techniques facilitating a greater experience of the stretch itself. PNF
utilizes the shortening contraction of opposing muscles to place the target muscle on
stretch followed by static contraction of the target muscle. This leads to enhanced
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range of movement (ROM), both active and passive. (Sharman, 1999; Funk, 2003;
Feland, 2004; Hindle, 2012; Victoria, 2013)
Stretching in asana involve isometric contraction of various muscles groups and the
agonist-antagonist activity. Muscle spindle stretch receptors are modified muscle
cells that act as sensory receptors and are located within the belly of muscles. They
detect changes in length and tonus of the active muscle and convey this information
to the central nervous system (CNS) via sensory neurons. These spinal cord reflex
arcs regulate contraction of muscles, by activating motor neurons via the stretch
reflex that signal active muscles to contract and resist such excessive muscle stretch
thus providing an instinctive protection against over-stretching or tearing. This has
practical application in asana practice as it is important one doesn’t try and force
oneself into the asana. If this were to be attempted, the muscles spindle activity
would be intensified and the resultant “block” would prevent us from going further.
When we learn to work with the spinal cord reflex arcs, we can on the contrary help
“dissolve” such “blocks” and enter a deeper state of asana itself. It has been
suggested that this can be done by either holding the stretch for 30-60 seconds thus
causing muscle spindles to decrease firing or to back out of the posture part-way
thus inducing relaxation of the muscle allowing for a deeper stretch into the asana.
For example one could go into any of the forward bending postures such as
padahasthasana or paschimottanasana and then back out part-way, so that after a few
deep breaths one can go into the asana and attain a deeper and more relaxed “feel” of
the asana.
On the other hand, the Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) located in the musculo-tendon
junction (MTJ) relaxes a muscle immediately if there has been a sustained
contraction lasting longer than 6 seconds. Thus it has been suggested that isometric
contractions (the hold phase) and concentric contractions (the contract phase) used
immediately before the passive stretch (the relax phase) can help to facilitate
autogenic inhibition that is reflex relaxation occurring in the same muscle where
GTO is stimulated. (Sharman, 2006; Feland, 2004)
Another important aspect is that concentric contraction of the muscle group
opposing that which is being stretched, helps achieve reciprocal inhibition that is a
reflex muscular relaxation occurring in muscles antagonist to the agonist muscle
where the GTO is stimulated. Reciprocal inhibition is an example of the Yogic
concept of dwandwa or pairs of opposites well exemplified by agonist-antagonist
coupling. When the agonist contracts the antagonist relaxes and vice versa. This
knowledge can be used to enhance the experience of asana by contracting the agonist
to relax the antagonist and deepen the posture. For example in paschimottanasana, the
quadriceps would be contracted to relax the hamstrings through the primitive spinal
cord reflex inducing reciprocal inhibition. This can be termed the modern equivalent
to the yogic concept of spanda-nishpanda, activation-relaxation coupling.
Scientific research on asana:
Glucose metabolism: Manjunatha and colleagues studied effects of selected yogic
postures on fasting and postprandial glycaemia and insulinemia in healthy young
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subjects and concluded that the performance of asana-s led to increased sensitivity of
pancreatic β cells to glucose signals. (Manjunatha, 2005) It was found in that study
that performance of four different sets of asana-s had similar effects of reducing
fasting and postprandial glycaemia and that blood insulin levels also fell after
performance of the asana-s. However, when oral GTT was administered, there was a
greater insulin response that may be interpreted as an enhanced sensitivity of
pancreatic β cells to the glucose challenge too. At the metaphysical level this may
imply a dynamic state of balance where one is relaxed, yet ready for any challenge
that may occur.
Energy expenditure and ventilatory responses: Previous studies have reported
energy expenditure and ventilatory responses of yogic standing (virasana) and sitting
(siddhasana) postures. (Rai & Ram, 1993; Rai, 1994) They reported that virasana
induces temporarily a hyper metabolic state characterised by enhance sympathetic
activity that gets inhibited upon the adoption of shavasana. (Rai & Ram, 1993)
Siddhasana was reported to be a mild type of exercise as it had higher energy
expenditure and ventilatory responses as compared to supine and chair sitting
postures. (Rai, 1994)
Oxygen consumption: A study by Telles and colleagues studied O2 consumption
and respiration following four yoga postures interspersed with relaxation and
supine relaxation alone, and concluded that the combination of stimulating and
relaxing techniques reduced physiological arousal better than the mere practice of
relaxation techniques alone. (Telles, 2000) This implies that even though
performance of yoga techniques may seem to be stimulatory in nature; physiological
effects in the longer run are of a more relaxing nature. This is corroborated by a
previous study from JIPMER reporting that shavasana relaxation is enhanced with
the addition of savitri pranayama thus decreasing O2 consumption by 26%.
(Madanmohan, 1983)
Cardiovascular effects: A study from CYTER, Pondicherry evaluated the time
course of cardiovascular changes during and after performance of different asana-s
(Bhavanani, 2014). Post postural HR and BP both fell below the initial values during
the recovery period and this was consequently seen to be even lower than the
responses to supine relaxation in shavasana. It was concluded that the effect of supine
relaxation is more pronounced after performance of the asana-s, as compared to just
relaxing in shavasana. This may be attributed to a normalisation and resultant
homeostatic effect occurring due to a greater, healthier de-activation of autonomic
nervous system occurring due to the presence of a prior activation. One of the extra
findings of that study is the revelation of subtle differences between right-sided and
left-sided performance of vakrasana and janusirasasana that may be occurring due to
the different internal structures being either compressed or relaxed on either side.
This requires further exploration and studies with a greater number of subjects and
doing asana-s in different positions may help unravel basis of such differences.
A previous study on individual asana-s evaluated BP of 25 medical students during
performance of sukhasana, vajrasana and dhanurasana and also compared these
findings with the supine, sitting and standing positions. (Malhotra & Tandon, 2005)
Dhanurasana had highest BP as compared to all other postures in that study too. The
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main difference between both studies above is that Malhotra & Tandon had
measured BP while subjects were in the posture whereas Bhavanani and colleagues
measured parameters before and after the posture along with a 10 min recovery
period. (Malhotra & Tandon, 2005; Bhavanani, 2014) Subjects in Malhotra &
Tandon’s study were not regular practitioners of yoga while subjects in the CYTER
study were undergoing a yoga training programme and had been practising the
techniques for more than 3 weeks at the time of the study.
Bera and colleagues studied the recovery from induced physiological stress in
shavasana and compared it with two other postures (resting in chair and resting
supine posture). (Bera, 1998) Subjects were allowed to rest in one of the above
postures immediately after completing scheduled treadmill running. Recovery was
assessed in terms of HR and BP that were measured before and every two minutes
after treadmill running till they returned to initial levels. This study concluded that
the effects of induced physiological stress were reversed in shorter time in shavasana
when compared to the other postures.
Studies on sirsasana: Studies on the headstand known popularly as the ‘king of
asana-s’ have shown that irrespective of whether it is done with or without support,
there is an immediate resultant sympathetic activation and 2-fold increase in the
intra ocular pressure. (Manjunath & Telles, 2003; Bhaskaran, 2006). Manjunath &
Telles in particular detailed heart rate variability (HRV) changes reflecting
autonomic tone and its responses following practice of 2 min of the headstand. It has
also been seen that head-down positions are associated with a rapid rise in IOP in
glaucoma and healthy eyes but that IOP returned to baseline values within 2
minutes. (Jasien, 2015) Hence it is important that researchers study the relaxation
phase that normally follows performance of headstand in practice and not focus only
on immediate effects.
Safety aspects:
A systematic review by Cramer and colleagues reported that of 76 unique cases of
yoga associated adverse events, most were related to musculoskeletal, nervous, or
visual systems. (Cramer, 2013) They recommended that “beginners should avoid
advanced postures such as headstand or lotus position”. They cautioned wisely that,
“it can also be recommended to patients with physical or mental ailments, as long as
it is appropriately adapted to their needs and abilities and performed under the
guidance of an experienced and medically trained yoga teacher”. Another national
survey in Australia reported that postures most commonly associated with injuries
were the headstand, shoulder stand and variations of the lotus pose. (Penman, 2012)
Both Cramer and Penman reviewed numerous reports on injuries following
performance of padmasana the lotus posture and suggested adoption of
precautionary measures.
A recent prospective study evaluated safety of asana-s in 25 healthy pregnant women
between 35-37 weeks of gestation. (Polis, 2015) Various tests including baseline non-
stress test, vital signs, and pulse oximetry were performed following which the
participants assumed the 26 yoga postures. Vital signs, pulse oximetry, tocometry,
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and continuous fetal HR monitoring were obtained during each of the postures.
They then obtained post-session non-stress test, vital signs, and pulse oximetry and
participants contacted 24 hours post-session. Both pre-session and post-session non-
stress tests were reactive while there were no changes in maternal heart rate,
temperature, pulse oximetry, or fetal HR post session. During the 26 yoga postures,
vital signs, pulse oximetry, and uterine tocometry remained normal in all women
and in all postures and fetal HR across all 26 postures was normal. There were no
falls or injuries during the total cumulative 650 poses and there were no reports of
decreased fetal movement, contractions, leakage of fluid, or vaginal bleeding in the
24-hour follow-up.
A recent study has used biomechanical methods to quantify the lower extremity
joint angles, joint moments of force, and muscle activities of 21 Hathayoga postures.
(Salem, 2013) The study demonstrated that Hathayoga postures engendered a range
of appreciable joint angles, joint moments of force, and muscle activities about the
ankle, knee, and hip, and that demands associated with some postures and posture
modifications were not always intuitive. They also demonstrated that all postures
elicited appreciable rectus abdominis activity, which was up to 70% of that induced
during walking.
Another study by Wang and colleagues suggested that musculoskeletal demand
varies significantly across the different poses and suggested that their findings be
used to guide the design of evidence-based yoga interventions to address
individual-specific training and rehabilitation goals in seniors. (Wang, 2013) The
Crescent, Chair, Warrior II, and One-legged Balance poses generated the greatest
average support moments while Side Stretch generated the greatest average hip
extensor and knee flexor joint moments of force (JMOFs). Crescent placed the
highest demands on the hip flexors and knee extensors. All of the poses produced
ankle plantar-flexor JMOFs. In the frontal plane, the Tree generated the greatest
average hip and knee abductor JMOFs; whereas Warrior II generated the greatest
average hip and knee adductor JMOFs. Warrior II and One-legged Balance induced
the largest average ankle evertor and invertor JMOFs, respectively. The
electromyographic findings were consistent with the JMOF results.
Asana-s and dosha-s:
The tridosha theory of health and disease that developed during the late Vedic period
is common to virtually all traditional Indian systems of medicine. Health is
understood to be the balanced harmony of the three humours in accordance with
individual predisposition while disease results from an imbalanced disharmony.
This is found in numerous classical texts of Yoga and Ayurveda like Shiva Swarodaya,
Sushruta Samhita, Charaka Samhita and Tirumandiram. According to the Dravidian
poet-saint Thiruvalluvar, disease results from imbalance of tridoshas (miginum
kuraiyinum noiseyyum noolor valimudhalaa enniya moondru –Thirukkural 941).
(Ramanathan, 2007). Vata is the energy of the body that moves like the wind and
causes flow in the body. It may be related to the nervous system as well as joints that
enable us to move. Pitta is related to bilious secretion and is the cause of heat in the
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body. It is the energy of catabolism that is essential for digestion. Kapha is the glue
that holds everything together and is the energy of anabolism helping generative
and regenerative processes.
According to Mark Halpern, Founder-Director, California College of Ayurveda,
USA, the tridosha-s fluctuate constantly. (Halpern, 2007) As they move out of
balance, they affect particular areas of our bodies in characteristic ways. When vata is
out of balance—typically in excess—we are prone to diseases of the large intestines,
like constipation and gas, along with diseases of nervous system, immune system,
and joints. When pitta is in excess, we are prone to diseases of the small intestines,
like diarrhoea, along with diseases of the liver, spleen, thyroid, blood, skin, and eyes.
When kapha is in excess, we are prone to diseases of the stomach and lungs, most
notably mucous conditions, along with diseases of water metabolism, such as
swelling.
Tirumandiram of Tirumoolar, the 3000 versed Tamil treatise by the Dravidian saint
has prescribed the practice of yoga at different times of day to relieve disorders
arising from tridosha imbalances. According to him, practice of yoga at dusk relieves
kapha, practice at noon relieves vata and practice in morning relieves pitta disorders
(anjanam pondrudal iyarum andiyile vanjaga vatha marumaddi yaanatthir senjiru kaalaiyir
seithidir pittarum nanjara sonnom naraithirai naasame –Tirumandiram 727). (Natarajan,
1991)
Somato-psychic nature of asana:
Asana-s are an excellent system through which one can work towards the restoration
of psychosomatic harmony and balance. Regular, repeated and rhythmic practice of
asana-s facilitate the restoration of the millieu interior as they gather attention to a
particular muscle/organ/area enabling regeneration by developing a positive
mental state. However it is often not understood that the actual efforts being made in
asana are somato-psychic in nature while the benefits that accrue are of a
psychosomatic nature. The body is placed into different postures/poses/poises. This
conscious and mindful placement of the body into certain ways helps simulate the
experience of different levels of evolution such as reptilian, amphibian, mammalian,
human and even super-human and divine states of being. Asana-s such as
bhujangasana enables us to experience what it feels like to be a cobra while the
makarasana simulates the "feel" of a crocodile. This enables an emotional psychic
cleansing of such bestial tendencies in a conscious and controlled manner. This can
change our very perspective of the world in which we live. Interpersonal
relationships take on new meaning and we begin to understand what it really takes
to be ‘human’. Vrikshsana gives us a taste of the tree-like experience while vajrasana
makes us feel more humane as only humans can sit in it. The veera/veerabadrasana
series enables courage and strength to develop while asanas named after great rishi-s
such as vashistasana, matsyendrasana and bharatwajasana enable us to develop our
higher nature. We can take this even further through the hanumanasana,
trivikramanasana and natarajasana that simulate the divine experiences.
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It is well known that voluntary physical activity and exercise training can influence
neuroplasticity in a favorable manner by facilitating natural neuro-generative,
neuro-adaptive and neuro-protective processes. Dishman and others have suggested
that these intrinsic and natural regenerative and rehabilitative processes may be
modulated by neurotropic factors. (Dishman, 2006) They suggested that metabolic
and neurochemical pathways among skeletal muscle, the spinal cord and the brain
offer plausible and testable mechanisms that might explain effects of physical
activity and exercise on the CNS.
Regular exercise and conscious motor skill training occurring through asana practice
may enhance executive functions of cognition and motor learning in the spinal cord.
Such improvements would be especially beneficial to those having cognitive decline
associated with aging, trauma and neurological disorders including dementia and
stroke. (Dishman, 2006)
The somato-psychic effects of the asana also include the release of endorphins that
induce a sense of relaxation, ease and wellbeing in the practitioner. These are
triggered by stretching of the muscles in the asana-s and may be responsible for the
positive feelings of self-empowerment and self-regulation often quoted by
practitioners.
Balancing the subtle energies though Hathayoga:
According to Yogamaharishi Dr Swami Gitananda Giri Guru Maharaj, founder of
ICYER at Ananda Ashram, Pondicherry, India, the word “hatha” is composed of two
syllables: “ha” which refers to the solar, positive, warm, activating energies and “tha”
which refers to the lunar, cooling, negative, inhibitive energies. “Hathayoga” thus
becomes a method of creating a harmonious interaction or polarity between these
two powerful, dialectically opposed primordial universal energies. The dominant
right side of the body is harmonized with the more passive left side. The creative,
intuitive, visionary right side of the bi-cameral brain is “yoked” harmoniously with
the logical, rational, mathematically inclined left side of the brain. A polarized
duality is transformed into a harmonious unity and the human personality becomes
integrated. Then, real yoga or Union occurs spontaneously. All this can be achieved
by an aware, step-by-step, conscious, intelligent approach to asana, kriya, mudra,
bandha, and pranayama which are the practical components of Hathayoga. Only when
the being exists in a perfect polarity of prana-apana, can the highest experience, that
of samadhi occur.
Hathayoga, a tool of conscious evolution:
Hathayoga is the perfect tool to help man evolve efficiently out of his animal
tendencies into human qualities and then, to obtain transcendence into Divine
realms of being. Yogamaharishi Dr. Swami Gitananda Giri taught his students the
concept of “Four-Fold Awareness”. (Bhavanani, 2009) One must first become aware
of the body. The second awareness is awareness of emotions, senses and energy. The
third awareness is awareness of mind. And the fourth awareness is of awareness
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itself”. Hathayoga fosters deep awareness of the body both internally and externally.
The practices stimulate deep consciousness in every cell. This awareness “spills
over” into an awareness of emotions, sensations, and energy (prana) flows. The
awareness deepens into an awareness of the working of the mind and how body,
emotions, sensations and prana are inseparably linked together. This deepening of
consciousness enables the practitioner to direct the course of his own life activities,
rather than be a victim of haphazard karmic forces.
Table 2: Major scientific reports on asana
Madanmohan, 1983 Shavasana relaxation is enhanced by addition of savitri
pranayama thus decreasing O2 consumption by 26%.
Rai & Ram, 1993 Virasana induces hyper-metabolic state with increased
sympathetic activity that gets inhibited upon adoption of
shavasana.
Rai, 1994 Siddhasana had higher energy expenditure and ventilatory
responses as compared to supine and chair sitting postures.
Bera, 1998 Effects of induced physiological stress were reversed in
shorter time in shavasana when compared to resting in chair
and resting supine posture.
Telles, 2000 Combination of stimulating and relaxing techniques reduced
physiological arousal better than relaxation techniques alone.
Manjunath &
Telles, 2003
Practice of sirsasana resulted in immediate sympathetic
activation as evidenced by HRV changes.
Malhotra & Tandon,
2005
BP was evaluated during performance of sukhasana, vajrasana
and dhanurasana with comparisons to supine, sitting and
standing positions. Dhanurasana had highest BP as compared
to all other postures.
Manjunatha, 2005 Performance of asana-s led to increased sensitivity of
pancreatic β cells to glucose signals
Bhaskaran, 2006 Practice of sirsasana resulted in 2-fold increase in intra ocular
pressure.
Streeter, 2007 Single yoga asana session of 60 min enhanced levels of GABA
by 27% in experienced yoga practitioners.
Penman, 2012 Australian national survey reported that postures most
commonly associated with injuries in yoga were the
headstand, shoulder stand and variations of the lotus pose.
Streeter, 2012 Greater improvements in mood and anxiety after 12 weeks
yoga asana-s than walking. Yoga postures associated with
increased thalamic GABA levels and improvements in mood
with decreased anxiety.
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Cramer, 2013 A systematic review reporting adverse effects following yoga.
Most were related to musculoskeletal, nervous, or visual
systems. Cautioned that yoga be appropriately adapted to
individual needs /abilities and performed under guidance of
experienced and medically trained yoga teachers.
Salem, 2013 Biomechanical methods used to quantify lower extremity joint
angles, JMOFs, and muscle activities of 21 Hathayoga postures.
Postures engendered a range of appreciable joint angles,
JMOFs, and muscle activities about ankle, knee, and hip. All
postures elicited appreciable rectus abdominis activity, which
was up to 70% of that induced during walking.
Wang, 2013 Musculoskeletal demand varies significantly across different
poses. Suggestions given to design evidence-based yoga
interventions addressing individual-specific training and
rehabilitation goals in seniors.
Bhavanani, 2014 Post postural HR and BP fell below baseline values during
recovery period. This was lower than responses to supine
relaxation in shavasana. Subtle differences reported between
right-sided and left-sided performance of asana-s.
Jasien, 2015 Head-down positions were associated with rapid rise in IOP
but it returned to baseline within 2 minutes.
Polis, 2015 Evaluated safety of asana-s in 25 healthy pregnant women
between 35-37 weeks of gestation. During 26 yoga postures,
vital signs, pulse oximetry, and uterine tocometry remained
normal in all women and fetal HR was also normal. No falls
or injuries during the total cumulative 650 poses and no
reports of decreased fetal movement, contractions, leakage of
fluid, or vaginal bleeding in the 24-hour follow-up.
Consciousness is the key to control and Hathayoga fosters consciousness. One
becomes deeply aware of old reptilian and animal instincts lurking in the primordial
sub-conscious. The various practices purify and exorcise these old animal / reptilian
conditionings. Swami Gitananda often explained this by saying, “All of the
evolutionary history of life on this earth planet is contained in your brain. You have
a reptilian brain and a mammalian brain, in common with those lower life forms and
all their primordial instincts for survival: sexual drive, dominance, territoriality etc.
are also active there. Then, you have the cerebral cortex, the human brain, which is
no longer bound by instinct, but can make conscious choices. The problem facing
man today is the lack of communication between this “old, unconscious brain” and
the “new conscious brain”. Hathayoga is the superb technology which enables man to
bridge that gap.” (Bhavanani, 2009)
This is the reason why the ancient rishi-s taught their disciples to put their bodies
into positions resembling lower life forms like trees, mountains, insects, birds and
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animals. The body remembers those past incarnations consciously when locked back
into a form resembling those physical structures. By becoming “conscious of the
unconscious” the jiva develops a metacognitive perspective (vairagya) that can deal
effectively with its primitive conditionings. This detached witnessing puts space
between stimulus – response and one can choose consciously how one will respond
to situations rather than react with the animal response of “flight or fight”.
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