This document discusses several theories of learning, including: - Pavlov's classical conditioning theory involving conditioning stimuli to elicit responses. - Skinner's operant conditioning theory involving reinforcing or punishing behaviors to shape learning through rewards and punishments. - Bandura's social learning theory which emphasizes how observation, modeling, and imitation of others influences learning behaviors and reactions. Bandura's experiments showed learning through observing consequences to others.

1. ADVANCE EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
UNIT - II
THEORIES OF LEARNING

2. UNIT STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Pavlov's classical conditioning and
skinners operant conditioning
theory
1.3 Bandura's Observational learning
1.4 Hull's Reinforcement Theory
1.5 Bruner's Discovery learning
1.6 Transfer of learning and its theories
1.7. Learning and motivation

3. OBJECTIVES
•1. Explain Pavlov's classical conditioning
and skinners operant conditioning
•2. understand Bandura's Observational
learning

4. Introduction
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in an organism’s behavior due to
experience.
Learning occupies important place in life .It
is through learning that man brings in so
much changes in his instincts that it
becomes difficult recognized to them.
learning therefore provides key to the
structure of our personality and behaviour.

5. How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our
minds naturally connect
events that occur in
sequence.

6. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
•Also sometimes referred to as
Pavlovian conditioning- uses a few
different terms to help explain the
learning process.

7. CONDITIONING
•The learning process by which
the behavior of an organism
becomes dependent on an event
occurring in its environment.

8. Classical Conditioning
● Classical Conditioning: a type of learning
that links a neutral stimulus - one that
evokes no special response except to call
attention to it - to another stimulus that
elicits a natural or involuntary response in a
given organism.
● The association between the two stimuli is
one form of associative learning - a
learning in which ideas and experiences
are mentally linked and thereby reinforce
each other.

9. Associative Learning:
Classical Conditioning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.

10. Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who
elucidated classical conditioning. His work
provided a basis for later behaviorists like John
Watson.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

11. •UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS – Is a
stimulus or trigger that leads to an
automatic response.
•NEUTRAL STIMULUS- is a stimulus
that doesn’t initially trigger response
on its own.
•CONDITION STIMULUS- Is a
stimulus that was once neutral ( didn’t
trigger a response) but now leads to a
response.

12. •UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE- is
an automatic response or a response
that occurs without thought when an
unconditioned stimulus is present.
•CONDITIONED RESPONSE- is a
learned response that is created
where no response existed before.

13. Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

14. Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

15. Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the
neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second.

16. Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US
for acquisition to occur. Contiguity is the
closeness in time between the CS and US.

17. Principle of Classical Conditioning
• Extinction
•Spontaneous recovery
•Stimulus Generalization
•Stimulus Discrimination

18. EXTINCTION
•Is when the occurrence of a
conditioned response decreased
or disappear. In classical
conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer
paired with unconditioned
stimulus.

19. Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS
(tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.

20. SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
•Sometimes a learned response can
suddenly reemerge, even after
a period of extinction. This
called Spontaneous recovery.

21. Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation)
spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (tone) persists
alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

22. Stimulus Generalization
•Is the tendency for conditioned
stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has
been conditioned.

23. Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to
respond to stimuli
similar to the CS is
called
generalization.
•Example:
•If the dog is
conditioned to
salivate at the sound
of a bell, the animal
may also exhibit the
same response to a
sound that similar to a
bell.

24. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
•Is the ability to differentiate between a
conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
have not been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.

25. Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish
between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that
do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

26. TEACHER(US) = LEARNING(UR)
BOOK (CS)+ TEACHER (US) = LEARNING
BOOK (CS) =LEARNING (CR)

27. IMPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
1. 1.In day to day life,fear, love, hatred towards an object or
phenomenon or event is created through conditioning.
2.
3. 2. Most learning is associated with the process of
conditioning i.e. stimulus response association and
substitution.
4.
5. 3. The phenomenon of stimulus generalization and
discrimination goes on throughout our lives.
6. 4.. Conditioning helps in learning what is desirable and
also unlearning what’s undesirable.

28. IMPLICATION OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
IN EDUCATION
1. REMOVE SUPERSTITIONS: The teacher can
used classical conditioning method to eliminate
superstious beliefs children may hold.
2. FACILITATE LANGUAGE LEARNING; The
classical conditioning can be helpful in teaching
language in the classroom.
3. HELPS TO ADJUST: The classical conditioning
method helps to adjust in a new environment
comfortably.

29. 1. ATTITUDE DEVELOPMENT: The classical conditioning
theory also facilitates the development of positive attitudes
among learners and the elimination of negative attitude.
2. AROUSES EMOTIONS: The classical conditioning theory is
also useful for emotional development as it arouses feelings
of happiness, joy, fear, and more in the classroom.
3. FACILITATE CREATIVITY: The classical conditioning
theory facilitates the used of creative instructional methods
like the used of audio-visual aids which can make the
classroom environment more engaging and encouraging.

30. Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning a process of
changing behavior by rewarding or
punishing a subject each time an
action is performed until the subjects
associates with pleasure or distress.

31. Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s experiments extend
Edward Thorndike’s thinking,
especially his law of effect. This
law states that rewarded
behavior is likely to occur again.
Yale
University
Library

32. Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting
point, Skinner developed the operant chamber,
or the Skinner box, to study operant
conditioning.
Walter
Dawn/
Photo
Researchers,
Inc.
From
The
Essentials
of
Conditioning
and
Learning,
3
rd
Edition
by
Michael
P.
Domjan,
2005.
Used
with
permission
by
Thomson
Learning,
Wadsworth
Division

33. Operant Chamber
The operant chamber,
or Skinner box, comes
with a bar or key that
an animal manipulates
to obtain a reinforcer
like food or water
through trial and error.
The bar or key is
connected to devices
that record the
animal’s response.

34. MECHANISM OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• SHAPING
•CHAINING
•DISCRIMINATION AND CUEING
•GENERALIZATION

35. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired
target behavior through successive approximations.
Process of reinforcing closer and
closer approximations to an end goal or skill.

36. CHAINING
•. Chaining : ‘Chaining’ refers to a process
in the process in the shaping of behaviour
or task is broken down into small steps for
its effective learning and subsequent
reinforcement.
•Refers to the concept of putting together
multiple behaviors that from one “ large
behavior”.

37. DISCRIMINATION AND CUEING
•In operant conditioning
discriminations refers to responding
only to the discriminative stimulus
and not a similar stimuli.

38. GENERALIZATION
•Generalisation may be understood in term
of a learning process where the organism
learns to provide similar operant
responses, to stimuli similar to but not the
same as the training stimulus.
•When a learned behavior is applied in a
similar context.

39. Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows.
Ways to increase behavior

40. • Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing
stimulus like food or drink.
• Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned
reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power
through association with the primary
reinforcer.
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers

41. • Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that
occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets
a food pellet for a bar press.
• Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is
delayed in time for a certain behavior. A
paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers
We may be inclined to engage in small immediate
reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed
reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require
consistent study.

42. Reinforcement Schedules
• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the
desired response each time it occurs.
• E.g. A student may be rewarded for every correct answer he
gives to question or problem put forth by his teacher.

43. Ratio Schedules
• Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response
only after a specified number of responses.
e.g., piecework pay.
• work basis i.e. The number of garments sewn or the number of
baskets or boxes packed.
• Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a
response after an unpredictable number of
responses. This is hard to extinguish because
of the unpredictability.
• (e.g., behaviors like gambling, fishing.)

44. Interval Schedules
• Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response only after a specified time has
elapsed.
• (e.g., preparing for an exam only when the exam
draws close.)
• Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a
response at unpredictable time
intervals, which produces slow, steady
responses.
• (e.g., pop quiz.)You never know when they might
happen.

45. Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it
follows.
Ways to decrease behavior

47. Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior for its own
sake.
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior due to
promised rewards or
threats of punishments.

48. Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued that Skinner
dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/
Photo
Researchers,
Inc
.

49. Educational implication of Operant
Conditioning
1. Used for shaping children’s behavior: The operant
conditioning theory can be used in the classroom to
shape the behavior of a children through the use of
reward or reinforcement.
2. ELIMINATES NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR: The
operant conditioning theory involved the used of
negative reinforcement which is strengthen behavior
by eliminating unpleasant behavior.
3. REINFORCEMENT: The operant conditioning
theory includes positive reinforcement which can be
used to shape the behavior of the children.

50. •REMOVES UNWANTED BEHAVIOR: The operant
conditioning theory helps in removing the unwanted
behavior of children such as demotivation towards
learning, tardiness, and the like.
•MOTIVATE LEARNERS: The used of reinforcement
in the form of rewards motivates children to keep
learning and perform better.

51. Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

52. ALBERT BADURA’S SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY
•Social learning theory emphasizes the
importance of observing ,modelling, and
imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.

53. Learning by Observation
• Higher animals, especially humans,
learn through observing and
imitating others.
• Modeling behavior shows how
something is done, whether negative
or positive.
• Learning by watching someone
model a behavior is vicarious
learning. Seeing the consequences is
vicarious reinforcement.

54. Bandura's Experiments
Bandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated
that individuals
(children) learn through
imitating others who
receive rewards and
punishments.
Courtesy
of
Albert
Bandura,
Stanford
University

55. Imitation Onset
Learning by observation
begins early in life. This
14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV
in pulling a toy apart.
Meltzoff,
A.N.
(1998).
Imitation
of
televised
models
by
infants.
Child
Development,
59
1221-1229.
Photos
Courtesy
of
A.N.
Meltzoff
and
M.
Hanuk.

56. Applications of Observational
Learning
Unfortunately,
Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial
models (family,
neighborhood or TV)
may have antisocial
effects.

57. Positive Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models
may have prosocial effects.
Bob
Daemmrich/
The
Image
Works

58. Television and Observational
Learning
Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school who
are exposed to violent
television, videos, and
video games express
increased aggression.
Ron
Chapple/
Taxi/
Getty
Images

59. Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence
leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bob
Daemmrich/
The
Image
Works
Glassman/
The
Image
Works

60. Four mediational processes
proposed by Bandura

61. Four steps in observational
learning theory
•1. ATTENTION:Attending and perceiving :-
observation of a role model catches the
attention of a child.
•2. RETENTION:Remembering the behaviour
:- The child remembers the actions and
styles.

62. Four steps in observational
learning theory
•3. REPRODUCTION:Converting the memory into action :-
The child imitates the the role model. A behaviour observed
and remembered by the learner is analysed in terms it its
acceptability to the learner. It is transformed into action only
afterwards and thus the observed relevant and accepted
aspect of the model’s behaviour are imitated by the learner.
•4. MOTIVATION:Reinforcement of the imitated behaviour :-
The child tries to change himself into the role of a model. The
behaviour of the model imitated by the learner is reinforced
for proper adoption and further continuance.

63. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF
BANDURA’S THEORY OF OBSERVATION
•Students learn by simply observing others,
so we teachers are the role model for
students we must be a good at Mannering
in front of children.
•Modelling such as attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation provides an
alternative to teaching new behavior.
•Teachers should help students self
realistic expectations.

64. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF
BANDURA’S THEORY OF OBSERVATION
•Self regulation technique provides an
effective methods for improving student’s
behavior.
•Teacher and parent must model appropriate
behaviors and be careful that they do not
model inappropriate behavior .
•Teachers should exposed students to a
variety of models.This technique is
especially important to break down
stereotypes.