This document summarizes several theories and concepts related to learning. It begins by defining learning as a process that occurs throughout life and involves both physical and mental adaptation. It then discusses three main types of learning: classical conditioning, instrumental/operant conditioning, and insight conditioning. For each type, it provides examples of influential theorists like Pavlov, Thorndike, and Kohler. It also outlines concepts like reinforcement, punishment, and how learning occurs in each type. Finally, it briefly discusses Edward Thorndike's three laws of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of effect.

1. LEARNINGCHAPTER7

2. Every child begins his life as a learner. Learning is
a process involving both the whole being of the child
and the total situation. As a process, it continues
throughout an individual’s life. Man has the potential
for complex learning but the rate of learning differs
for different individual. Some people learn more and
faster than others because of some interacting
factors such as physical, social, mental, and
emotional factors that affect the learning process.
Introduction

3. Definition of Learning
It is a form of adaptation, mode of adjustments,
and a change in behavior.
Bugelski describes learning as “ the mental
activities by means of which knowledge and
skills, habits, attitudes and ideals are acquired,
retained, and utilized resulting in the progressive
adaptation and modification of behavior.”

4. There are several hypotheses concerning the
process of learning which attempt to explain how
learning takes place. Some of these Theories are as
fallows:
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
2. INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
3. INSIGHT CONDITIONING
How Learning Takes Place

5. No.1
Classical Conditioning

6. Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning was the first type of
learning to be discovered and studied
within the behaviorist tradition.
• Conditioning is a kind of response build
up through repeated exposure.
The major theorist in the development of
classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
scientist trained in biology and medicine .

7. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov

8. Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov was studying the digestive system of
dogs and became intrigued with his
observation that dogs deprived of food began
to salivate when one of his assistants walked
into the room.
• He began to investigate this phenomena and
established the laws of classical conditioning.

9. Classical Conditioning
• General model: Stimulus (S) elicits >
Response (R)
• Classical conditioning starts with a reflex
(R): an innate, involuntary behavior.
• This involuntary behavior is elicited or
caused by an antecedent environmental
event.

10. The specific model for classical conditioning is:
• A stimulus will naturally (without learning)
elicit or bring about a reflexive response
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits >
Unconditioned Response (UR)
• Neutral Stimulus (NS) --- does not elicit
the response of interest
• This stimulus is a neutral stimulus since it
does not elicit the Unconditioned (or
reflexive) Response.

11. The Neutral / Orienting Stimulus (NS) is
repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned/
Natural Stimulus (US).

12. The Neutral Stimulus (NS) is
transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus
(CS).

13. That is, when the CS is presented by itself, it
elicits or causes the CR .

14. • Forward conditioning
• Delay Conditioning
• Trace conditioning
• Simultaneous conditioning
• Backward conditioning
• Temporal conditioning
• Unpaired conditioning
Major types of classical conditioning

15. Forward conditioning:
During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes
the onset of the US.Two common forms of forward
conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.
Delay Conditioning:
In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped
by the presentation of the US
Trace conditioning:
During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap.
Instead, the CS is presented, a period of time is allowed to
elapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the US
is presented.The stimulus free period is called the trace
interval. It may also be called the "conditioning interval"

16. Simultaneous conditioning:
During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are
presented and terminated at the same time.
Backward conditioning:
Backward conditioning occurs when a
stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus.
Temporal conditioning:
The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR
acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval
between US presentations.The background, or context, can
serve as the CS in this example.

17. Unpaired conditioning:
The CS and US are not presented together.
Usually they are presented as independent
trials that are separated by a variable, or
pseudo-random, interval.This procedure is
used to study non-associative behavioral
responses, such as sensitization.

18. No. 2
Instrumental Conditioning

19. Instrumental Conditioning
 Also known as Operant Conditioning.
 Is the type of learning in which behaviors are
emitted to earn rewards or avoid punishment.
The study of Operant conditioning started
with experiments of Edward Lee Thorndike
(1898). But it is believed that the most expensive
and systematic experiments on Operant
conditioning were done by B.F. Skinner (1951).

20. Edward Lee Thorndike
-His experiments involved
puzzle boxes and he used hungry
cat as subjects. The hungry cat
was placed inside the puzzle box.
Outside the box was food which
served as the reward for the cat
if and when it could open the door
by pushing the button or pulling a
string. After many trials, the car
managed to learn the responses
instrumental in its escape. After
several trials, the cat was able
to perform the correct action as
soon as it was placed in the box.
-From these experiment, he
formulated the law of effect

21. BurhusFrederic(B.F.)Skinner
(March20,1904–August18,1990)
• American
psychologist,
behaviorist,
inventor, author
and social
philosopher.
• He was the Edgar
Pierce Professor
of Psychology at
Harvard University
from 1958 1974.

22. Inventions of BF Skinner
Air crib
Project
Pigeon
Operant
Chamber/
Skinners
box
Cumulativ
e
recorder

23. Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
+ Behavior
Punishment
- Behavior
POSITIVE
ADD Unpleasant
Stimuli following
behavior
NEGATIVE
REMOVE Appetite
stimulus following
behavior
POSITIVE
ADD Appetate
stimulus following
correct behavior
NEGATIVE
Active Avoidance
Behavior avoids
noxious stimulus
following correct
behavior
Escape
Remove
unpleasant stimuli
following correct
behavior
Diagram of Operant Conditioning
Giving a food when the dog sits. Spanking a child for cursing Telling a child to go to his room for
fighting her sister
Turning off an alarm clock the
push button to stop
Studying to avoid getting a bad
grades

24. Components of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement
• Punishment
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment

25. Is something that happens after a behavior
or event that strengthens or increases behavior
likely to occur again.
Positive reinforcement
(reward/praise) are
favorable events or
outcomes that are
presented after the
behavior. A behavior is
strengthened by the
addition of something.
Reinforcement

26. Negative reinforcement
(removal) In these
situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal
of something considered
unpleasant. (e.g. headache
–by taking aspirin headache
gone)

27. Is the presentation of an adverse event
or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows.
Punishment
Positive punishment
(treat) referred to as
punishment by application,
involves the presentation of
unfavorable event or
outcome in order to weaken
the response it follows.

28. Negative punishment
(taking away
annoying/painful) known
as punishment by removal,
occurs when an favorable
event or outcome is
removed after behavior
occurs.

29. Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning
Primary Reinforcers:
known without being
learned. Biological needs
(e.g. food, water)
Secondary Reinforcers:
learned value. Conditioned
reinforcement (e.g. money,
praise)

31. Four Important Principles in Operant
Conditioning
1. Principle of Immediacy
2. Principle of Satiation
3. Principle of Contingency
4. Principle of Size

32. 1. Principle of Immediacy
- is behavior that brings the instructor and the
students closer together in terms of perceived
distance.
 Non-verbal immediacy
includes behaviors such
as smiling, gesturing,
moves around the class
while teaching and
having relaxed body
language.
 Verbal immediacy
refers to calling on by
the students or asks
students how they feel
about things.

33. Principle of Deprivation
/ Satiation
 Deprivation Not having access to
something that is highly desirable.
 Satiation is the opposite of
deprivation; refers to having too
much.

34. Principle of Contingency
- a future event or circumstance
that is possible but cannot be
predicted with certainty.
Principle of Size
- The cost-benefit" determinant of
whether a consequence will be
effective. If the size, or amount,
of the consequence is large enough
to be worth the effort, the
consequence will be more effective
upon the behavior.

35. No. 3
Insight Conditioning

36. INSIGHT CONDITIONING
• is a type of learning or problem solving that
happens all-of-a-sudden through
understanding the relationships of various parts
of a problem rather than through trial and error.

37. Wolfgang Kohler
• was a psychologist who
conducted experiments in
which insight learning was
observed in animal
behavior.

38. Epiphany
Another noteworthy term that describes
insight learning is "epiphany." Epiphanies
involve a sudden revelation or abrupt
awareness bringing seemingly chaotic data
into symmetry.

39. Eureka!
Insight learning also involves
the "I have found it!" feeling
or "eureka“.
Insight learning is also
expressed as the "Aha
moment,"

40. Insightful learning depends on certain factors:

41. Insightful learning depends on certain factors:
INTELLIGENCE

42. Insightful learning depends on certain factors:
Learning Situation

43. Insightful learning depends on certain factors:
Initial Efforts

44. Repetition
Generalization

45. So how Insightful Learning Occurs:
1. The nature of the situation is very important for
insightful learning.
2. The organism reacts to the whole situation, not
to its component parts.
3. The organism perceives the relationships
between means and the goal, and restructures the
perceptual field.

46. 4. Insight follows a period of trial and error behavior.
5.The insightful solution comes all on a sudden.
6. Once the insightful solution is reached, the
organism shows high degree of retention and
transfer to similar problems.
7. Insight is closely related to the organism's capacity
to learn.

47. TYPES OF LEARNING
• RATIONAL LEARNING
• MOTOR LEARNING
• ASSOCIATIONAL LEARNING
• APPRECIATIONAL LEARNING

48. RATIONAL LEARNING
• It is a clearly intellectual in nature and
involves the process of abstraction by
which concepts are formed.Activities in
school such as gaining an
understanding of a philosophical
principle, or solving original in geometry,
or discovering the meaning and
application of a scientific law, are
intellectual in nature.
• The outcome sought in this type of learning
is KNOWLEDGE.

49. MOTOR LEARNING
• It involves the development of
patterns of neuromuscular
coordination and adjustment of
perceptual situation. It is use in many
aspects and activities of the school.
• The outcome sought of this type of
learning is SKILL.

50. ASSOCIATIONAL LEARNING
• It involves the development of associative pattern
by whichideas and experiences are retained,
recalled, and recognised through the process of
linking together or establishing relationships
between and among these ideas and
experiences so that one willserve as the
stimulus for the revival and recall of the other
previously experienced.
• The outcome sought of this type of learning is the
acquisition and retention of facts and information.

51. APPRECIATIONAL LEARNING
• It involves the process of acquiring
attitudes, ideas, satisfaction, judgment,
and knowledge concerning values as well
as the recognition of the worth and
importance which the learner gains from
participating in learning activities.
• The outcome sought of this type of
learning is APPRECIATION or
AESTHETIC IMPROVEMENT.

52. The Three Laws Of Learning
• LAW OF READINESS
• LAW OF EXERCISE
• LAW OF EFFECT

53.  Born August 31,
1874 in
Williamsburg,
Massachusetts.
 Died on August 9,
1949.
Edward Lee Thorndike

54. Edward L.Thorndike's pioneer investigations in
the fields of human and animal learning are
among the most influential in the history of
Psychology. In 1912, he was recognized for his
accomplishments and elected president of the
American Psychological Association. In 1934, the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science electedThorndike as the only social
scientist to head this professional organization.
Thorndike retired in 1939, but worked actively
until his death in 1949. His work was a major
influence on B.F.Skinner.

55. LAW OF READINESS
First primary law of learning, according to him, is the
‘Law of Readiness’or the ‘Law ofActionTendency’,
which means that learning takes place when an action
tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment,
set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of
action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot
be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless
the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to
start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic
& unprepared manner.

56. LAW OF EXERCISE
The law of exercise had two parts: (a) the
law of use and (b) the law of disuse. This
law stated that connections grow
stronger when used—where strength is
defined as “vigor and duration as well as
the frequency of its making”—and grow
weaker when not used.

57. Many examples of this case are
found in case of human learning.
Learning to drive a motor-car,
typewriting, singing or memorizing
a poem or a mathematical table,
and music etc. need exercise and
repetition of various movements
and actions many times.

58. LAW OF EFFECT
which states that responses which occur
just prior to a satisfying state of affairs are
more likely to be repeated, and responses
just prior to an annoying state of affairs are
more likely NOT to be repeated. The
second contribution was his rejection of
the notion that man is simply another
animal that can reason. He believed
intelligence should be defined solely in
terms of greater or lesser ability to form
connections.

59. additionallaws and principlesof Thorndike's
learning theory
Multiple response or varied reaction – When
faced with a problem an animal will try one
response after another until it finds
success.(Trial and Error)
• If the individual wants to solve a puzzle,
he is to try in different ways rather than
mechanically persisting in the same way.
Thorndike’s cat in the puzzle box moved
about and tried many ways to come out
till finally it hit the latch with her paw
which opened the door and it jumped out.

60. Set or attitude – Learning is guided by a
total set or attitude of the organism, which
determines not only what the person will do
but what will satisfy or annoy him. For
instance, unless the cricketer sets himself
to make a century, he will not be able to
score more runs. A student, similarly,
unless he sets to get first position and has
the attitude of being at the top, would while
away the time and would not learn much.
Hence, learning is affected more in the
individual if he is set to learn more or to
excel..

61. Partial activity or prepotency of elements –
According to this law, the learner reacts
selectively to the important or essential in
the situation and neglects the other
features or elements which may be
irrelevant or non- essential. The ability to
deal with the essential or the relevant part
of the situation, makes analytical and
insightful learning possible. In this law of
pre-potency of elements, Thorndike is
really anticipating insight in learning which
was more emphasized by the Gestaltions.

62. Law of Response by Analogy -
According to this law, the individual
makes use of old experiences or
acquisitions while learning a new
situation. There is a tendency to utilize
common elements in the new situation as
existed in a similar past situation. The
learning of driving a car, for instance, is
facilitated by the earlier acquired skill of
driving a motor cycle or even riding a
bicycle because the perspective or
maintaining a balance and controlling the
handle helps in stearing the car.

63. The Law of Associative Shifting -
According to this law we may get a
response, of which a learner is capable,
associated with any other situation to which
he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by
the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a
command. A fish was dangled before the cat
while he said ‘ stand up’. After a number
trails by presenting the fish after uttering
the command ‘stand up’, he later ousted the
fish and the over all command of ‘stand up’
was found sufficient to evoke the response
in the cat by standing up or her hind legs.

64. OTHER LAWS OF LEARNING
• The Law of Apperception(Herbart)
• The Law of Association(Kant)
• The Law of Use and Disuse ( Gates)
• The Law of Frequency and Recency (Watson)
• The Law of Intensity(Karr)
• The Law of Primacy ( Watson)
• The Law of Forgetting(Ebbinghause)

65. THE LAW OF APPERCEPTION
This law refers to the application of past experiences
of the pupil in forming a new connection or
integrating his past experiences with the new
experiences.
THE LAW OF ASSOCIATION
Anew connection is formed through the association
of the past and new situations. It is the process of
relating two or more experiences to each other.

66. THE LAW OF USE AND DISUSE
This law explains that the use of the connection
strengthens the response; the stronger the
connection, the more prompt, easy, and certain the
response will be. It weakens when the connection is
not used.
THE LAW OF FREQUENCY AND RECENCY
This law states that the more frequently the more
connection is exercised, the stronger the connection
will be. The response or connection most frequently
made will be retained.

67. THE LAW OF INTENSITY
The more intense or vivid the exercise, the stronger
the connection will be.An intense connection will be
remembered longer than one less intense. Carr
assumed that all responses are retained but that
some are strengthened and are therefore more likely
to be aroused when a situation is presented.
THE LAW OF PRIMACY
This law states that the first learned act will be better
remembered than acts learned later.

68. THE LAW OF FORGETTING
Forgetting is typically rapid during the shortly after
learning and less rapid during subsequent periods.
Forgetting is less rapid if the material is meaningful,
if there is overlearning or if there is not intervening
activity between learning and recall.

69. RETENTION AND TRANSFER
RETENTION
Refers to the extent to which material originally
learned still persists.
Ex.
When the child correctly spells a word or
solves a problem for the first time, we say that he
has acquired that particular behavior. If the same
child correctly repeats the performance later, we say
that he has remembered, or retained what he
acquired earlier.

70. TRANSFER
The ability of a person to transfer what they have
learned in one situation to another. Transfer occurs
when whatever is learned in one situation is used in
a new or different situation.
Ex.
If a person has learned to drive a car of a
specific brand and make, he can also drive other
cars of different vintage and make.

71. MEMORY AND FORGETTING
Memory was one of the first
phenomena to be studied in a
psychological laboratory. It was
Herman Ebbinghaus, a
distinguished German
psychologist who pioneered in
the studies involving memory.
He found that meaningful
materials are more easily learned
and remembered longer than
nonsense materials.

72. MEMORY
• Memory is a term to level the way facts are
impressed, retained, and later recalled.
• “Without memory, there can be no learning. If
there were no learning, there is nothing to
remember.”
FORGETTING
• Forgetting is a failure to retain what was learned.
Also refers to the extent that learned materials are
lost.

73. Evidence for memory can found in different tasks
like recall, recognition, and relearning.
Recall
• It isthe most difficult of these tasks since most of the related
stimuli are absent.
Recognition
• Involves differentiation of the familiar from the unfamiliar
Relearning
• Isan attempt toregain material or askill that has been
partially or completely lost.
MEMORY

74. FORGETTING
THEORIES OF FORGETTING
• Passive Decay Through Disuse
• Interference Effects
• Absence of Adequate Stimulation
• Obliteration of the Memory Trace
• Motivated Forgetting

75. Passive Decay Through Disuse
This Theory assumes that lapse of time is
responsible for forgetting. When something is
learned and used repeatedly, it is
remembered, but when it is not used, it is
forgotten. This explanation in term of disuse
suggests deterioration or decay of the
connections in the brain as the reason for
forgetting.

76. Interference Effects
Interference of present learning with what has
been previously learned leads to forgetting.
For example, you read and studied the last
chapter and remembered much of what you
read or studied. Now, you read in this chapter,
possibly your reading this will interfere with
your remembering the earlier material. This
phenomenon is called retroactive inhibition.

77. Absence of Adequate Stimulation
Most often, we are unable to recall some
event in the past because the appropriating
stimuli are absent. Then suddenly, we are
ableto recall the event because of a particular
odor, name or other stimulus. Subjects are
also aided in recall when they are brought to
the scene of the experience or are asked to
recall incidents under the same conditions
where the original experience occurred.

78. Obliteration of the Memory Trace
This state occurs because of certain
conditions other than time. One is the effect of
emotional shock. The most widely accepted
explanation is the emotional shock or other
conditions prevent consolidation. In this
theory, the engram is disrupted before
consolidation has taken place.

79. Motivated Forgetting
This may be illustrated by repression. According
to this principle, some of our memories become
inaccessible to recall because of the negative
effect on us. Motivated forgetting is evident in the
following: when we try to forget an unpleasant
experience but are not completely successful; and
when one has conveniently forgotten some
unpleasant obligation as when a high school
student who is asked to see the principal
immediately after classes honestly forget that he
has to do so.

80. FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
Psychologist agree that several factors affect learning.
Some of these factors are explained as follows:
• Maturation or Readiness
• Intelligence
• Opportunities for Learning
• Environmental conditions
• Health of the Learner
• Emotional factor

81. Learning cannot be effective unless
maturation or readiness exists.
Readiness to read, for instance, is
associated with maturation and with the
child’s development as an organism.
But it is the only factor related to this
ability to read. These can be developed
through guidance and training.

82. The intelligence of learner is also one of
those factor. Success in school is
generally closely related to the level of
intelligence. Pupils with low intelligence
often find it difficult to cope with their
school work. The native capacity of
individual is of prime importance in
determining the effectiveness of the
learning process.

83. Athird factor is opportunities for learning.
There are many children, who, because of
adverse economic conditions, are forced to
withdraw or quit school at an early age, thus,
they are deprived of the opportunities to
learn. Those who live in an environment of
modern laborsaving devices and facilities,
like automobile, TV, or other modern
appliances, gain more experiences and skills
than those with limited facilities.

84. Environmental conditions also affect
learning. School facilities like good
ventilation, comfortable chairs or desks,
proper lightning conditions, wide green
lawns, and playgrounds provide a
better background for learning than
crowded “searshop” classrooms.

85. The health of the learner is likely to
affect his ability to learn and his power
to concentrate. Children suffering from
visual, auditory, and other physical
defects are seriously handicapped in
developing skills as in reading and
spelling. It has been demonstrated that
various glands of internal secretion
such as the thyroid and pituitary glands
affect behavior.

86. Another is the emotional factor.
Emotional attitudes and factors can
have adverse effects upon learning. If a
child is emotionally upset or frustrated
because of home problems or social
difficulties, the likelihood is that he will
not be in the right and proper condition
to learn.

87. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING
Prapered by group # 1:
Aljon, Cristina, and Jessa