Learning can occur through classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and other forms of associative and non-associative learning. Classical conditioning involves forming an association between an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response and a neutral conditioned stimulus, so that the conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the response. Instrumental conditioning occurs when voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their consequences. Learning theories aim to explain how learning takes place through various processes like acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination.
1) The document discusses classical conditioning theory as proposed by Ivan Pavlov. It explains the key elements of classical conditioning including unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
2) Several principles of classical conditioning are covered, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination.
3) Pavlov's famous experiment with dogs is described, where he conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard a tone, based on its association with food.
This document discusses several theories of learning, including:
- Pavlov's classical conditioning theory involving conditioning stimuli to elicit responses.
- Skinner's operant conditioning theory involving reinforcing or punishing behaviors to shape learning through rewards and punishments.
- Bandura's social learning theory which emphasizes how observation, modeling, and imitation of others influences learning behaviors and reactions. Bandura's experiments showed learning through observing consequences to others.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 6 of the textbook Psychological Science on the topic of learning. It discusses:
1) The influential work of B.F. Skinner and John Watson in establishing behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for studying learning through the early 1960s.
2) The difference between classical and operant conditioning, with classical conditioning involving associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings, while operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behaviors to increase or decrease their likelihood.
3) How concepts from classical and operant conditioning can help explain phenomena like phobias, drug addiction, and the effects of different reinforcement schedules on behavioral persistence.
This document provides an overview of learning concepts including classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped by their consequences, such as reinforcement. Major figures who studied these concepts include Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. Contemporary views acknowledge cognitive and biological factors in learning. Learning principles have applications in behavior modification, education, sports, and business.
Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment involved pairing a neutral stimulus (the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) for dogs. Through repeated pairings, the dogs learned to associate the bell with food and would salivate upon hearing the bell alone. Pavlov's experiment demonstrated the learning process of classical conditioning and identified the key components of an unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Classical conditioning principles like acquisition, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery help explain how associations are formed between stimuli and responses through learning.
Classical conditioning theory and social learning theorytarravandana
Classical conditioning and social learning theory are two theories of learning. Classical conditioning involves associating an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response. Social learning theory proposes that people learn from observing others via attention, retention, and motivation. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment provided evidence that children's aggressive behavior can be influenced by observing and modeling adult behavior.
This document provides an overview of classical conditioning. It defines classical conditioning as a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. The document discusses Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs and the salivation response. It covers principles of classical conditioning like acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. Applications to behavior therapy and the neural basis are also mentioned.
1) The document discusses classical conditioning theory as proposed by Ivan Pavlov. It explains the key elements of classical conditioning including unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
2) Several principles of classical conditioning are covered, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, and stimulus discrimination.
3) Pavlov's famous experiment with dogs is described, where he conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard a tone, based on its association with food.
This document discusses several theories of learning, including:
- Pavlov's classical conditioning theory involving conditioning stimuli to elicit responses.
- Skinner's operant conditioning theory involving reinforcing or punishing behaviors to shape learning through rewards and punishments.
- Bandura's social learning theory which emphasizes how observation, modeling, and imitation of others influences learning behaviors and reactions. Bandura's experiments showed learning through observing consequences to others.
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 6 of the textbook Psychological Science on the topic of learning. It discusses:
1) The influential work of B.F. Skinner and John Watson in establishing behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for studying learning through the early 1960s.
2) The difference between classical and operant conditioning, with classical conditioning involving associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings, while operant conditioning involves reinforcing or punishing behaviors to increase or decrease their likelihood.
3) How concepts from classical and operant conditioning can help explain phenomena like phobias, drug addiction, and the effects of different reinforcement schedules on behavioral persistence.
This document provides an overview of learning concepts including classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped by their consequences, such as reinforcement. Major figures who studied these concepts include Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. Contemporary views acknowledge cognitive and biological factors in learning. Learning principles have applications in behavior modification, education, sports, and business.
Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment involved pairing a neutral stimulus (the sound of a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) for dogs. Through repeated pairings, the dogs learned to associate the bell with food and would salivate upon hearing the bell alone. Pavlov's experiment demonstrated the learning process of classical conditioning and identified the key components of an unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Classical conditioning principles like acquisition, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery help explain how associations are formed between stimuli and responses through learning.
Classical conditioning theory and social learning theorytarravandana
Classical conditioning and social learning theory are two theories of learning. Classical conditioning involves associating an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus eventually elicits the same response. Social learning theory proposes that people learn from observing others via attention, retention, and motivation. Bandura's Bobo doll experiment provided evidence that children's aggressive behavior can be influenced by observing and modeling adult behavior.
This document provides an overview of classical conditioning. It defines classical conditioning as a type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. The document discusses Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs and the salivation response. It covers principles of classical conditioning like acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination. Applications to behavior therapy and the neural basis are also mentioned.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of classical and operant conditioning, including definitions of key concepts, descriptions of pioneering research studies, recent research examples, and lists of useful resources like journals, books, videos, blogs and articles on the topics of classical and operant conditioning.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential that results from experience. It became a major focus of study in psychology in the early 20th century with the rise of behaviorism. Maturation is a developmental process that brings about changes in a person over time through coping with emotional situations, rather than just physical aging. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, as shown in Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment which conditioned a fear response in the infant.
This document provides an overview of several theories of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical conditioning refers to learning associations between stimuli and responses, as demonstrated by Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a tone that was paired with food. Operant conditioning refers to learning through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors, as studied by Thorndike and Skinner. Observational learning occurs when observing the behaviors of others, as shown by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. The document also discusses insight learning, latent learning, and different reinforcement schedules used to shape behaviors.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two types of learning. Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response. Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency and behaviors followed by punishment decrease. Both types of learning shape behavior through repeated experiences and associations.
1) The document discusses several theories of learning including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
2) Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. For example, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard a bell by pairing the bell with food.
3) Operant conditioning is based on consequences influencing behavior. Reinforcers that follow a behavior increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring again, while punishments that follow a behavior decrease the likelihood of it reoccurring.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state arising from experience. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through repeated pairing, such as Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a bell. Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviors are reinforced or punished to increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence. Reinforcers that immediately follow a behavior are most effective at shaping learning. Cognitive factors like latent learning and observational learning also influence the learning process.
Classical conditioning is a learning process theorized by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus that elicits no response comes to elicit a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response from the organism. The three main stages of classical conditioning are before conditioning when no response occurs to the neutral stimulus, during conditioning when the neutral and unconditioned stimuli are paired, and after conditioning when the now conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response alone. Classical conditioning has implications for developing habits, interests, eliminating undesirable behaviors, and language learning.
Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli. It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his experiments with dogs where he found they learned to associate food with the presence of stimuli like a bell. There are different types of classical conditioning including delay, trace, and simultaneous conditioning which vary based on the timing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, involves reinforcement and punishment to modify behavior. Reinforcers like food increase behaviors while punishers decrease them. Shaping uses reinforcement to gradually modify behaviors towards a target behavior through successive approximations.
Learning is the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience or practice that results in relatively permanent changes to behavior. There are two main types of learning:
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response. Operant conditioning involves changing behavior through reinforcement or punishment in response to the consequences of an action.
Classical conditioning is a learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a new conditioned response. Pavlov's famous experiment involved ringing a bell before giving dogs food, causing the dogs to salivate in response to the bell alone. Classical conditioning involves three stages: before conditioning where the unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response, during conditioning where the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, and after conditioning where the now conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. This theory has implications for understanding reward, punishment, language learning, removing superstitions, developing attitudes, and using audiovisual aids in education.
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
This document summarizes different theories and experiments on how learning occurs. It discusses classical conditioning by Pavlov and operant conditioning by Skinner. It also covers observational learning through Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Later sections extend these theories by considering cognition, biological constraints, and real-world applications of conditioning principles.
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Reproductive Physiology Overview
User
Reproductive system physiology
ChatGPT
The reproductive system is responsible for the production and development of offspring. It includes various organs and structures that differ between males and females. In this response, I will provide an overview of the reproductive system physiology for both males and females.
Male Reproductive System Physiology:
Testes: The testes are the primary male reproductive organs. They produce sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis and secrete the hormone testosterone.
Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage.
Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands: These accessory glands produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects the sperm. The seminal fluid is combined with sperm to form semen.
Urethra: The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder and also serves as a passage for semen during ejaculation.
Female Reproductive System Physiology:
Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs. They produce ova (eggs) through a process called oogenesis and secrete hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
Fallopian Tubes: The fallopian tubes are ducts that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They serve as the site for fertilization, where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg.
Uterus: The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. It undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It contains a small opening called the os, which allows the passage of menstrual blood and sperm.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the external genitalia. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth and also receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Mammary Glands: While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands in the breasts produce milk for nourishing newborns after childbirth.
Hormonal Regulation:
The reproductive system is regulated by hormones that coordinate and control its functions. In males, the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, while FSH promotes sperm production.
In females, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen. LH causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces pro
This document discusses learning theories of behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning. It summarizes the key experiments and concepts from theorists like Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner. Specifically, it describes Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment with dogs, Watson's classical conditioning experiment with Little Albert, and Thorndike's early experiments with puzzle boxes that helped establish the laws of exercise and effect related to operant conditioning.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are two main types of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, like Pavlov's dog experiment, while operant conditioning involves associating behaviors with consequences through reinforcement or punishment, as in Skinner's experiments. Both types of learning are important and observations also influence learning through imitation of models.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Classical conditioning links a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a natural response, forming an association. Ivan Pavlov's famous experiments on dogs demonstrated classical conditioning. Operant conditioning associates responses with consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment, shaping behavior. Both types of associative learning are important ways organisms learn about their environment.
This document provides an overview of learning processes and theories. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. Key points include:
- John Watson established behaviorism, which studies how learning affects behavior.
- Characteristics of learning include being continuous, pervasive, involving the whole person, and often changing experiences.
- Principles of learning state that individuals learn best when ready physically/mentally and with meaningful practice.
- Classical and operant conditioning are two major behavioral theories of learning. Classical conditioning associates stimuli to elicit responses, while operant conditioning associates behaviors to consequences.
- Reinforcement and punishment impact the probability that behaviors will occur. Schedules of reinforcement determine when
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on motivation theory and job design. It discusses how individual needs influence motivation according to various theories, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs and ERG theory. It also covers process theories of motivation like equity theory, expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and reinforcement theory. Finally, it examines the link between job design and motivation, addressing concepts like job simplification, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model.
This document discusses the genetics of psychiatric disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism, and Tourette syndrome. It covers patterns of inheritance such as autosomal dominant, recessive, and X-linked traits. Specific genes have been identified for some conditions, like DISC1 for bipolar disorder and mutations in multiple small effect genes contribute to conditions like autism and schizophrenia. Genome-wide association studies and copy number variation analysis have also provided insights but most psychiatric conditions are genetically complex with both genetic and environmental factors involved.
The document provides a comprehensive overview of classical and operant conditioning, including definitions of key concepts, descriptions of pioneering research studies, recent research examples, and lists of useful resources like journals, books, videos, blogs and articles on the topics of classical and operant conditioning.
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential that results from experience. It became a major focus of study in psychology in the early 20th century with the rise of behaviorism. Maturation is a developmental process that brings about changes in a person over time through coping with emotional situations, rather than just physical aging. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, as shown in Watson's famous "Little Albert" experiment which conditioned a fear response in the infant.
This document provides an overview of several theories of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical conditioning refers to learning associations between stimuli and responses, as demonstrated by Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a tone that was paired with food. Operant conditioning refers to learning through reinforcement and punishment of behaviors, as studied by Thorndike and Skinner. Observational learning occurs when observing the behaviors of others, as shown by Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. The document also discusses insight learning, latent learning, and different reinforcement schedules used to shape behaviors.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two types of learning. Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response. Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, where behaviors followed by reinforcement increase in frequency and behaviors followed by punishment decrease. Both types of learning shape behavior through repeated experiences and associations.
1) The document discusses several theories of learning including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
2) Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. For example, Pavlov conditioned dogs to salivate when they heard a bell by pairing the bell with food.
3) Operant conditioning is based on consequences influencing behavior. Reinforcers that follow a behavior increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring again, while punishments that follow a behavior decrease the likelihood of it reoccurring.
Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state arising from experience. Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through repeated pairing, such as Pavlov's dogs learning to salivate to a bell. Operant conditioning is a form of learning where behaviors are reinforced or punished to increase or decrease the likelihood of reoccurrence. Reinforcers that immediately follow a behavior are most effective at shaping learning. Cognitive factors like latent learning and observational learning also influence the learning process.
Classical conditioning is a learning process theorized by Ivan Pavlov in which a neutral stimulus that elicits no response comes to elicit a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response. Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response from the organism. The three main stages of classical conditioning are before conditioning when no response occurs to the neutral stimulus, during conditioning when the neutral and unconditioned stimuli are paired, and after conditioning when the now conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response alone. Classical conditioning has implications for developing habits, interests, eliminating undesirable behaviors, and language learning.
Classical conditioning involves learning through associations between stimuli. It was discovered by Ivan Pavlov through his experiments with dogs where he found they learned to associate food with the presence of stimuli like a bell. There are different types of classical conditioning including delay, trace, and simultaneous conditioning which vary based on the timing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, involves reinforcement and punishment to modify behavior. Reinforcers like food increase behaviors while punishers decrease them. Shaping uses reinforcement to gradually modify behaviors towards a target behavior through successive approximations.
Learning is the process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience or practice that results in relatively permanent changes to behavior. There are two main types of learning:
Classical conditioning involves learning associations between stimuli through experiences, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit the same response. Operant conditioning involves changing behavior through reinforcement or punishment in response to the consequences of an action.
Classical conditioning is a learning process discovered by Ivan Pavlov where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a new conditioned response. Pavlov's famous experiment involved ringing a bell before giving dogs food, causing the dogs to salivate in response to the bell alone. Classical conditioning involves three stages: before conditioning where the unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned response, during conditioning where the neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus, and after conditioning where the now conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. This theory has implications for understanding reward, punishment, language learning, removing superstitions, developing attitudes, and using audiovisual aids in education.
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
This document summarizes different theories and experiments on how learning occurs. It discusses classical conditioning by Pavlov and operant conditioning by Skinner. It also covers observational learning through Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. Later sections extend these theories by considering cognition, biological constraints, and real-world applications of conditioning principles.
Open sidebar
Reproductive Physiology Overview
User
Reproductive system physiology
ChatGPT
The reproductive system is responsible for the production and development of offspring. It includes various organs and structures that differ between males and females. In this response, I will provide an overview of the reproductive system physiology for both males and females.
Male Reproductive System Physiology:
Testes: The testes are the primary male reproductive organs. They produce sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis and secrete the hormone testosterone.
Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage.
Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands: These accessory glands produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects the sperm. The seminal fluid is combined with sperm to form semen.
Urethra: The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder and also serves as a passage for semen during ejaculation.
Female Reproductive System Physiology:
Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs. They produce ova (eggs) through a process called oogenesis and secrete hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
Fallopian Tubes: The fallopian tubes are ducts that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They serve as the site for fertilization, where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg.
Uterus: The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. It undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It contains a small opening called the os, which allows the passage of menstrual blood and sperm.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the external genitalia. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth and also receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Mammary Glands: While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands in the breasts produce milk for nourishing newborns after childbirth.
Hormonal Regulation:
The reproductive system is regulated by hormones that coordinate and control its functions. In males, the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, while FSH promotes sperm production.
In females, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen. LH causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces pro
This document discusses learning theories of behaviorism, including classical and operant conditioning. It summarizes the key experiments and concepts from theorists like Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner. Specifically, it describes Pavlov's classical conditioning experiment with dogs, Watson's classical conditioning experiment with Little Albert, and Thorndike's early experiments with puzzle boxes that helped establish the laws of exercise and effect related to operant conditioning.
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are two main types of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves forming associations between stimuli, like Pavlov's dog experiment, while operant conditioning involves associating behaviors with consequences through reinforcement or punishment, as in Skinner's experiments. Both types of learning are important and observations also influence learning through imitation of models.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. Classical conditioning links a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a natural response, forming an association. Ivan Pavlov's famous experiments on dogs demonstrated classical conditioning. Operant conditioning associates responses with consequences, such as reinforcement or punishment, shaping behavior. Both types of associative learning are important ways organisms learn about their environment.
This document provides an overview of learning processes and theories. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. Key points include:
- John Watson established behaviorism, which studies how learning affects behavior.
- Characteristics of learning include being continuous, pervasive, involving the whole person, and often changing experiences.
- Principles of learning state that individuals learn best when ready physically/mentally and with meaningful practice.
- Classical and operant conditioning are two major behavioral theories of learning. Classical conditioning associates stimuli to elicit responses, while operant conditioning associates behaviors to consequences.
- Reinforcement and punishment impact the probability that behaviors will occur. Schedules of reinforcement determine when
This document summarizes key concepts from a chapter on motivation theory and job design. It discusses how individual needs influence motivation according to various theories, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs and ERG theory. It also covers process theories of motivation like equity theory, expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, and reinforcement theory. Finally, it examines the link between job design and motivation, addressing concepts like job simplification, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model.
This document discusses the genetics of psychiatric disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, autism, and Tourette syndrome. It covers patterns of inheritance such as autosomal dominant, recessive, and X-linked traits. Specific genes have been identified for some conditions, like DISC1 for bipolar disorder and mutations in multiple small effect genes contribute to conditions like autism and schizophrenia. Genome-wide association studies and copy number variation analysis have also provided insights but most psychiatric conditions are genetically complex with both genetic and environmental factors involved.
The document discusses anxiety disorders including their neurobiology, symptoms, and management. It covers types of anxiety like generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. The neurobiology sections explain the fear and worry circuits in the brain and how neurotransmitters like serotonin, GABA, and norepinephrine are involved. Symptoms of the different disorders are provided along with an overview of pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment approaches.
The document discusses treatment resistant schizophrenia, defining it as when patients do not respond to conventional antipsychotics or at least two different antipsychotics. It provides various definitions and criteria for treatment resistance proposed over time. It also discusses factors associated with poor outcomes in schizophrenia like biological, symptomatic, environmental, and illness factors. The neurobiology of treatment resistant schizophrenia is explained, involving the dopaminergic and glutamatergic systems. Evaluation of treatment resistant schizophrenia involves assessing patient factors, treatment factors, and conducting further investigations.
The frontal lobe controls important cognitive functions like problem solving, memory, language, judgment and behavior. It has several subregions that support distinct functions. Tests can evaluate specific frontal lobe areas like the motor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex. Tasks examine abilities like motor skills, attention, inhibition, memory and reasoning which may be impaired with frontal lobe damage.
This document discusses stress, its causes and effects. It defines stress as any physical or mental demand placed on the body. Stress can be either good (eustress) or bad (distress) depending on whether it exceeds one's ability to cope. Short term stress symptoms include increased heart rate and sweating while long term stress can lead to insomnia, illness and depression. The document identifies common stressors like exams, relationships and health issues and provides tips for managing stress through a healthy lifestyle, relaxation techniques, mindfulness and social support.
The document discusses suicide, including its definition, types, epidemiology, etiology, assessment, and management. Some key points:
- Suicide is defined as self-inflicted death with evidence the person intended to die. It is best viewed as a symptom rather than a disease.
- 95% of suicide attempts are associated with mental disorders like depression, substance abuse, schizophrenia. Biological and genetic factors are also implicated.
- Assessment involves evaluating psychiatric symptoms, past attempts, psychosocial stressors, and directly inquiring about suicidal thoughts and plans. Tools like the Beck Scale and C-SSRS can estimate risk.
- Treatment involves ensuring safety, medical evaluation, psychotherapy, medication like antidepress
Paroxetine in Anxiety & Depression - Recent Updates.pptxRonakPrajapati61
Paroxetine is an effective treatment for several psychiatric conditions:
- It is effective at reducing symptoms of depression, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder compared to placebo based on meta-analyses of multiple studies.
- A meta-analysis found paroxetine treatment for social anxiety disorder resulted in greater improvements in symptom scales and higher response and remission rates compared to placebo.
- A study of patients with generalized anxiety disorder found clinically significant improvements in symptom scales after paroxetine treatment, reflecting restoration of cardiac autonomic function and BDNF levels.
Disability in schizohrenia ppt.ppt · version 1.pdfRonakPrajapati61
Disability in schizophrenia can cause limitations in social and occupational functioning. It is assessed using scales like the Disability Assessment Scale (DAS) and Indian Disability Evaluation and Assessment Schedule (IDEAS), which measure impairment in domains like self-care, communication, interpersonal relationships, and employment. Disability is caused by positive and negative symptoms, cognitive impairments, comorbidities, and medication side effects. Management of disability involves a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach including pharmacological treatment, psychosocial rehabilitation with skills training, family psychoeducation, and community support programs. The goal is to help patients achieve independent living and better social and vocational participation.
This document outlines a proposed study on the burden of care and rates of depression among primary caregivers of patients with alcohol use disorder. The study aims to estimate caregiver burden and depression prevalence, and examine correlations between these and socio-demographic and alcohol-related variables. It describes the study design as cross-sectional and outlines inclusion/exclusion criteria, sample size calculation, and methodology involving assessment of patients, identification of primary caregivers, and administration of questionnaires to measure burden, depression, alcohol dependence severity, and collect demographic details. Statistical analysis will include t-tests, chi-square tests, and use of SPSS software.
Attachment theory proposes that secure attachments to caregivers in early childhood are crucial to healthy social-emotional development. John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's research showed that children develop internal working models of relationships based on their caregiver's availability and responsiveness. These working models influence how people relate in future relationships. Attachment theory is applied in parenting, couples counseling, psychotherapy, education, health, leadership, and social policy areas to promote secure attachments and relationships.
This document provides an overview of tobacco use and related disorders. It discusses the history of tobacco use dating back to 600 AD, common substances found in tobacco, and the mechanisms by which nicotine acts in the body. Physical and psychological effects of tobacco are outlined, as are tobacco-related disorders according to diagnostic manuals. Statistics on tobacco use in India are presented. Common forms of tobacco use, reasons for its popularity, and health conditions associated with smoking and smokeless tobacco are summarized. The document concludes with descriptions of assessment and treatment approaches for tobacco dependence.
The document outlines the rules and structure for an undergraduate quiz competition in psychiatry organized by the Department of Psychiatry at Dr M K Shah Medical College & Research Centre and the Indian Psychiatry Society - Gujarat State Branch. It consists of 6 rounds including an MCQ round, a "who am I" round, a scientist round, a movie round, a famous celebrities round, and a rapid fire round. The top 4 teams will advance based on scores in the initial MCQ round. Subsequent rounds involve answering psychiatry-related questions within time limits, with points awarded for correct answers and no negative points for incorrect answers.
This document discusses disorders of consciousness and describes various levels and types of diminished or altered consciousness. It outlines 3 dimensions of normal consciousness - vigilance, lucidity, and self-awareness. It then describes quantitative and qualitative changes in consciousness, including clouding, drowsiness, coma, delirium, confusion, twilight states, automatism, dream-like states, and stupor. Various conditions and substances that can cause these altered states of consciousness are also mentioned.
This document discusses erectile dysfunction (ED) and the role of Tetrafol Plus supplement. It defines ED and notes its prevalence increases with age. Common causes of ED include cardiovascular disease, hypertension, high cholesterol, and diabetes, which are highly prevalent in India. The document explains penile anatomy and blood flow physiology related to erections. It discusses how conditions like hyperhomocysteinemia, diabetes, and the MTHFR gene polymorphism can cause endothelial dysfunction and reduce nitric oxide, impairing the erection process. Two studies show that treating the underlying conditions like high homocysteine and low folate levels in non-responders to ED drugs like sildenafil can help resolve ED issues. The document
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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2. What is Learning?
• Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change
in behavior that occurs as a result of practice or experience
not through growth or maturation .
• Growth & maturation relates to species specific behavior not
learning.
• Both the behavior and environment interact to produce the
learned change.
• learning & performance are inter related but performance
can be affected by insufficient motivation, anxiety,
depression, though learning is non demonstrable.
• Learning is state dependant. It may occur when person is in
special internal state like under influence of drug or in special
environment. Such learning is best recalled when person is in
same internal state or same environment..
5. Habituation
• A simple form of learning in which the response to a
stimulus decreases after lengthy or repeated
presentation.
• The degree of habituation and the speed at which it
occurs is affected by several variables including the
intensity of the stimulus, the duration of the stimulus
and how many times the individual is exposed to the
stimulus over a given time period
• What happens before habituation ?
• Each time an organisms encounters a new or
unexpected object , there is a surprise reaction known
as orienting reflex.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
6. • This reflex is one of the physiological arousal in which
1. The eyebrows lift slightly
2. the eyes widen
3. heart beats faster
4. Muscle slightly tense
5. Skin resistance drops
• After habituation the same object causes no such
reflex.
• For instance, if you are working with a radio playing in
the background, the noise will distract you at first. But
after a while, you will gradually tune out the noise
and focus on your work.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
7. Sensitization
• is the increased reaction to a stimulus after repeated
exposure to that stimulus. In this instance, you become
more sensitive to the stimulus as time goes on. Here,
frequent exposure to a stimulus increases the strength
of the reaction to a stimulus.
• For example, if you
are walking down the hall right after watching a scary
movie and your friend pops out and says BOO! you will
startle more easily. The movie sensitized you. It
sensitized you to other stimuli and it did so in one
presentation!
8. Associative learning
• Learning a correlation between two events.
• It includes Classical & instrumental
conditioning.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
9. Classical conditioning
• It is also called respondent conditioning or
Pavlovian conditioning.
• It was actually discovered accidentally by Ivan
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist who discovered this
phenomenon while doing research on digestion.
• His research was aimed at better understanding
of digestive pattern of dogs.
• During his experiments he would put meat
powder in the mouth of dogs who had tubes
inserted into various organs to measure bodily
responses.
Kaplan and sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Tenth Edition
10. • He discovered that the dogs began to salivate
before the meat powder was presented to
them.
• Then the dogs began to salivate as soon as the
person feeding them entered the room.
• Soon he began to gain interest in this
phenomenon and abandoned his study of
digestion.
• He started pairing a bell sound with the meat
powder and found that even if the meat
powder was not presented, the dog would
eventually salivate after hearing the bell.
Kaplan and sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Tenth Edition
11. • Since the meat powder results in salivation,
these two variables are called the
unconditioned stimulus(UCS) and
unconditioned response(UCR),respectively.
• The bell and salivation are not naturally
occurring, the dog was conditioned to
respond to the bell.
• Therefore ,the bell is considered conditioned
stimulus(CS) and the salivation to the bell is
considered conditioned response(CR).
Kaplan and sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Tenth Edition
12.
13. Effects of Conditioning on Behavior
• Food aversion: Through conditioning, humans and
other animals may learn to like or dislike different
foods
• For eg- chemotherapy can make cancer patients sick,
and can therefore cause the conditioning of an
aversion to a food that was eaten recently (or to the
clinic itself).
• Over Eating: On flip side Conditioning from external
Cues ( Fav. Restaurant, Flavors) can trigger food
consumption and craving, a potential influence on
overeating and obesity.
Kaplan and sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Tenth Edition
14. Theories about classical conditioning
1. Stimulus substitution: an association (a link
or a bond) is formed between the CS and the
US so that the CS becomes the equivalent of
the US in eliciting a response.
2. Information and Expectation: It states that
when the CS is presented, the US is expected
and the learner response in accordance with
this expectation.
Introduction to Psychology, Seventh Edition, Morgan, King, Weisz, Schopler
15. Principles of classical conditioning
Acquisition:
• The process by which an organism learns an
association is known as acquisition.
• The conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned
stimulus are paired; the experimenter waits a
short time, then presents the CS-UCS pairing
again.
• Each pairing is called a trial.
• As the CS and UCS are repeatedly paired
response to the CS become stronger and quicker.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
16. Second order conditioning:
• The form of learning in which a CS become
associated with a second neutral stimulus that
precedes it , which then evokes conditioned
response itself
• ex. If Pavlov's bell to which dog is already
conditioned is repeatedly paired with a
second neutral stimulus (flashing light ) , the
second stimulus become associated with first (
the bell ) ,and new CS ( the light ) soon begins
to elicit the CR (salivation )
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
17. Extinction
• The gradual decline and disappearance of the
conditioned response when it no longer is reinforced .
When CS is presented without US repeatedly over
period of time it leads to disappearance of CR over the
time.
• Extinction has to do with dissociating two stimuli.
• The process of extinction is used by therapist to help
people overcome phobias or irrational fear (this
extinction technique is known as systemic
desensitization)
• Flooding – Another extinction technique in which
phobic person is encouraged to remain in the presence
of the feared stimulus despite the overwhelming flood
of terror.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
18. Spontaneous recovery
• The reappearance of an extinguished response
upon returning to the familiar situation and the
conditioned stimulus.
• The organism apparently learns that one event
will not follow another.
• however, after complete extinction, if the UCS is
once again paired with the old CS, the
extinguished response will be quickly relearned.
This learning of a conditioned the then
extinguished response is called reconditioning
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
19. Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to
respond to stimuli that are similar, but not
identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g.,
responding to a buzzer banging when the
conditioning stimulus was a bell)
• If you have an extremely warm relationship
with an aunt, for eg, you may find that your
affection extends to people who resemble her.
You may begin your acquaitance with such
people already expecting to look them simply
because they look like your aunt.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
20. • Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to
respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., a
child responds differently to various bells
(alarms, school, timer)
• A dog quickly learns to discriminate its
owner’s whistle (which is followed by dinner,
an unconditioned stimulus) from the whistle
of others who don’t feed it.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
21. Critical factors in Classical Conditioning
• Information value of conditioned stimulus: it
means that the CS must communicate
relevant information. The CS must serve as a
signal or predictor of UCS, but for that to
happen, the absence of CS must also predict
the absence of UCS.
• Biological constraints on conditioning: Genetic
factors play a role, since species seem to be
genetically prepared to make some kinds of
associations more readily than others.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
22. when a CS signals a positive
US, the CS will evoke approach behaviors—called sign tracking. For
example, an organism will approach a signal for food. Analogously, when a
CS signals a negative US, it will evoke behaviors that tend to move the
organism away from the CS.
23. Instrumental /operant conditioning
• The form of learning in which a voluntary
behavioral response is strengthened or
diminished by its consequences.
• In this form of conditioning, our behavioral
response operates on the environment and is
instrumental in producing or affecting the
consequences.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
24. SKINNER’S :TWO TYPES OF BEHAVIOR
• 1) Respondent Behavior: Which results from
known stimuli. (eg: knee jerk behavior to
patellar stimulation, pupillary constriction to
light)
• 2) Operant Behavior: independent of
stimulus.( eg: infant aimless movement, rats
purposeless movement in cage).
• Skinner took advantage of operant behavior in
his experimentation.
25.
26.
27. Four kinds of Operant & Instrumental
Conditioning
• Primary Reward Conditioning: The learned response is
associated with biologically significant reward. Eg pellet
of food.
• Secondary Reward Conditioning:This kind of learning in
which instrumental behavior is no longer associated
with biologically significant reward as it was in the past.
For eg Chimpanzee learn to press lever to obtain poker
chips which they insert into a slot to secure grapes.
Later they work to accumulate poker chips even when
they are not interested in grapes.
• Escape
• Avoidance Conditioning
28. Principles of Instrumental conditioning
• B.F. Skinner established basic principles of
instrumental conditioning which are:
1. Reinforcement
2. Punishment
3. Acquisition
4. Extinction
5. Recovery
6. Generalization
7. Discrimination
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
29. Skinner’s experiment
• Working with Thorndike’s law of
effect as his foundation, Skinner
began conducting scientific
experiments on animals (mainly
rats and pigeons) to determine
how organisms learn through
operant conditioning.
• He placed these animals inside
an operant conditioning
chamber, which has come to be
known as a “Skinner box”.
• A Skinner box contains a lever
(for rats) or disk (for pigeons)
that the animal can press or
peck for a food reward via the
dispenser.
• The rate at which the rat first
presses the bar is the baseline
level.
30. • After establishing the baseline level, the
experimenter activates a food magazine located
outside the box.
• Now, every time the rat presses the bar, a small
food pellet is released into the dish. The rat eats
the food pellet and soon presses the bar again.
• The food reinforces bar pressing, and the rate of
pressing increases dramatically.
• If the food magazine is disconnected and pressing
the bar no longer delivers food, the rate of bar
pressing diminishes. An instrumental response
that is not reinforced undergoes extinction, just
as a classically conditioned response does.
Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology, 15th Edition
31. Reinforcement Theory: BF SKINNER
1938 (PROCESS THEORY)
• Reinforcement theory is a psychological
principle suggesting that behaviors are shaped
by their consequences, and that individual
behaviors can be changed through
reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
Behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner was
instrumental in developing modern ideas
about reinforcement theory.
32.
33. Reinforcement: Strengthening the Behavior Response
by producing Desirable Consequence
• Positive Reinforcement: Strengthening the behaviour
by rewarding it.
• Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when
she tidies up her toys. If the frequency of picking up
the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer
(to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).
• Example: A company enacts a rewards program in
which employees earn prizes dependent on the
number of items sold. The prizes the employees
receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase
sales.
34. • Negative Reinforcement: Strengthening the the
behaviour response that leads to removal of
Aversive stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement occurs out of a negative
feedback loop.
• Negative Reinforcement is not
Punishment.(addition of Aversive stimulus)
• Example: A child cleans their room, and this
behavior is followed by the parent stopping
"nagging" or asking the child repeatedly to do so.
Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce
the behavior of cleaning because the child wants
to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging.
35. PUNISHMENT: Weakening or suppressing a response by producing an aversive
consequence
• In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a
human or animal's surroundings which, occurring after a
given behavior or response, reduces the likelihood of that
behavior occurring again in the future.
• There are two types of punishment, positive and negative.
Positive punishment involves the introduction of a stimulus
to decrease behavior while negative punishment involves
the removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior.
• There are also two types of punishers. There are primary
punishers which directly affect the individual such as pain
and are a natural response and then there are secondary
punishers which are things that are learned to be negative
like a buzzing sound when getting an answer wrong on a
game show
36. • Positive Punishment
• Example: A mother yells at a child when he or she
runs into the street. If the child stops running into
the street, the yelling ceases. The yelling acts as
positive punishment because the mother
presents (adds) an unpleasant stimulus in the
form of yelling.
• Negative Punishment.
• Example: A child throws a temper tantrum
because they want ice cream. Their mother
subsequently ignores them, making it less likely
the child will throw a temper tantrum in the
future when they want something. The removal
of attention from his mother is a negative
punishment because a pleasant stimulus
(attention) is taken away.
38. Uses of Punishment
• Punishment has been used in a lot of different applications.
• Punishment has been used in applied behavioral analysis,
specifically in situations to try and punish dangerous behaviors like
head banging.
• Punishment has also been used to psychologically
manipulate individuals to gain control over victims.
• It has also been used in scenarios where an abuser may try
punishment in order to traumatically bond their victim with them.
• Stuttering therapy has also seen the use of punishment with
effective results.
• Certain punishment techniques have been effective in children
with disabilities, such as autism and intellectual disabilities.
39. • Extinction involves a behavior that requires no
contingent consequence. If something (good or bad) is
not reinforced, it should in theory disappear.
• Extinction can be intentional or unintentional and
happens when an undesired behavior is ignored,
hoping it will go away overtime if there is no reaction.
Behavior after extinction spikes first and then declines
over time.
• Example (Intended): A young child ignores bullies
making fun of them. The bullies do not get a reaction
from the child and lose interest in bullying them.
• Example (Unintended): A worker has not received any
recognition for their above and beyond hard work.
They then stop working as hard.
40.
41. Shaping
• Instead of rewarding only the target behavior, in
shaping, we reward successive approximations of a
target behavior.
• Shaping is needed because it is extremely unlikely
that an organism will display anything but the
simplest of behaviors spontaneously.
• In shaping, behaviors are broken down into many
small, achievable steps.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
42. • The specific steps used in the process are the
following:
1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired
behavior.
2. Then reinforce the response that more closely
resembles the desired behavior. You will no longer
reinforce the previously reinforced response.
3. Next, begin to reinforce the response that even
more closely resembles the desired behavior.
4. Continue to reinforce closer and closer
approximations of the desired behavior.
5. Finally, only reinforce the desired behavior.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
43. Aspects of Reinforcement
• Primary Reinforcers: Any stimuli or events that reduce
basic drives or needs. (food for a hungry animal,
escape from pain)
• Secondary Reinforcer: A secondary reinforcer has no
inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when
linked with a primary reinforcer. (money, is only worth
something when you can use it to buy other basic
needs (food, water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or
other secondary reinforcers. If you were on a remote
island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and you had
stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you
could not spend it.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
44.
45. REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
• When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it
displays a behavior, it is called continuous
reinforcement
• In partial reinforcement (intermittent
reinforcement), the person or animal does not get
reinforced every time they perform the desired
behavior.
• There are several different types of partial
reinforcement schedules.
47. Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater
resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is
also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect
(PREE).
The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest
rate of responding and the greatest resistance to
extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot
machines).
The PRP "post-reinforcement pauses" of a fixed interval
schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped"
accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules
produce a more "angular" response
48. • The Premack principle is a special case of
reinforcement elaborated by David Premack,
which states that a highly preferred activity
can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a
less-preferred activity.
49. • In one experiment Premack observed that children
spent more time playing with pinball machine than
eating candy when both are freely available. When he
made playing pin ball machine contingent on eating a
certain amount of candy, the children increased the
amount of candy they ate.
• In therapeutic application of this principle patients with
Schizophrenia were observed to spend more time in
rehabilitation centre sitting down nothing than they
did working at a simple task.
• When 5 minutes sitting down was made contingent on
certain amount of work,the work output was certainly
increased, as was skill acquisition. This principle is also
known as Grandma’s rule.(if you eat your spinach, you
can have your desert)
50. • The Premack principle has been refined over
years that even a less preferred behaviour can
reinforce a more preferred behaviour. If
organism is deprived of doing less preferred
behaviour over a long time.
51. Adventitious Reinforcement
• Responses accidentally reinforced by
coincidental pairing of response &
reinforcement are adventitious.
• Have clinical Implication in development of
Phobia and other Behavior.
52. STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
• As in classic conditioning stimulus
generalization occurs in Instrumental and
Operant Conditioning, responses learned in
presence of one stimulus will also be made in
presence of other similar stimulus. The
amount of generalization depends on the
similarity of stimuli
53. STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
• Discriminations are developed in instrumental or
Operant Conditioning when differences in
reinforcement accompany different stimuli. For
eg: a person or animal may learn to respond to a
positive stimulus present when responses are
being reinforced and not on a negative stimulus
present when responses are not being reinforced
that is during Extinction. Stimulus discrimination
in Operant conditioning is also being referred to
as stimulus control of behavior.
54. Aversive conditioning: The Organism change its
behavior to avoid a painful, noxious or aversive
stimulus
• Eg: the electric shock is most common aversive
stimulus in lab experiments. Any behavior that
avoids aversive stimulus is reinforced.
• The form of learning based on aversive stimuli.
• It includes:-
1. Escape Learning
2. Avoidance Learning
3. Punishment Learning
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
55. • Escape Learning: learning of a response which produces relief, or escape, from an
aversive situation. (for example, we may leave a room if there is a painfully loud
noise there).
• Avoidance Learning: The organism learns to make a certain response to prevent an
aversive event from even starting( we pay our bills on time to avoid late charges,
we carry an umbrella to avoid getting wet when it rains).
• To move from escape to avoidance learning it needs a Anticipatory response.It is a
two factor learning or two process theory i.e. pavlovian learning co occur and
motivates behavior during operant learning.
• Eg In case of anxiety and fear Pavlovian fear conditioning motivates and allow
reinforcement of instrumental action(avoidance response) to mitigate and reduce
aversive event and fearful consequence before it happens.
• Escape and avoidance learning response behavior plays a significant role in various
anxiety disorders like
• OCD : Patient continuously check and rechecks to avoid anxiety.
• Agarophobic patients stays home to escape from places to avoid panic attacks.
• Bullimic patients: continues to vomit afer a meal to reduce learned anxiety evoked
by eating meal.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
56. Spatial learning
• Understanding of the location of objects in
space and our own orientation in the physical
environment.
• Cognitive maps: an integrated internal
representation of the way objects and
landmarks are arranged in the environment.
• Organism learn a cognitive map of an
environment by exploring it, noting the
landmarks along their route.
Psychology Today, an Introduction, Seventh Edition, Bootzin, Bower, Crocker, Hall
57. Cognitive learning
• The word Cognition is derived from a Greek word that means to
know, to reason or to conceptualize.
• It’s a mental act or process of acquiring knowledge and
understanding through thoughts, experiences and senses.
• A change in the way Information is processed as a experience a
person has had
• It involves the forming of new associations and the perceiving of
new relationships among events.
• It is not responses to particular stimuli that are learned; instead
links are made among stimuli so called stimulus-stimulus
associations are learned.
• It implies association between cause & affect, between action
action & consequences.
• It helps in making cognitive strategies to form mental plans that
persons used to understand themselves and environment.
Introduction to Psychology, Seventh Edition, Morgan, King, Weisz, Schopler
58. Why is this form of Learning called
Cognitive?
• Cognitive learning processes involves obtaining,
organizing & using intellectual knowledge for
processing of information received from environment
through senses in step by step ways as mentioned
below:
1. Selection of information
2. Making of alterations in the selected information
3. Association of items of information with each other
4. Elaborations of information in thought
5. Storage of information in the Memory
6. Retrieval of stored information
Introduction to Psychology, Seventh Edition, Morgan, King, Weisz, Schopler
59. Observational learning
• The form of learning was
proposed by Albert Bandura in
his Social learning Theory by
watching others and noting the
consequences of their
behavior.
• Model: a person from whom
behavior is learned by
observation.
• Many of us imitate parents,
teachers or friends and some
of us imitate prestigious people
we will never meet- movie
stars, fictional characters,
athletes.
Models don’t have to be
present for learning to
occur: through symbolic
modeling, this child can
learn a behavior by
watching someone
demonstrate it on
television.
60. PSYCHIATRIC APPLICATION OF
LEARNING THEORY
• The key insight from learning theory is that
most behavior is learned behavior, for animals
as well as human beings. If behavior can be
learned, it can also be unlearned, so long as
the right steps are followed (as described by
the learning theory), and the right
reinforcements or punishments are applied