The document discusses several process models for software development projects, including code and fix, waterfall, incremental/iterative, spiral, rapid application development (RAD), and concurrent development models. Each model has advantages and disadvantages depending on factors like project size, requirements stability, and team expertise. Combinations of models may also be suitable in some cases.

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Preeti Mishra
Course Incharge

2. The Details

3. Process Model
• A software process model is a standardised
format for:
• planning
• organising, and
• Running
developing a project
• Definition: A (software/system) process model
is a description of the sequence of activities
carried out in an SE project, and the relative
order of these activities.

4. Project Plan
• project plan =
process model + project parameters
• Project specific parameters will include:
• Size, (person-years)
• Budget,
• Duration

5. Hence..
• A process model covers the entire lifetime of a
product
• From birth of a commercial idea to final de-installation
of last release
• The three main phases:
– design,
– build,
– maintain. (50% of IT activity goes here!)

6. Process Models
• Several models exist to streamline the
development process.
• Each one has its pros and cons
• It is up to the development team to adopt
the most appropriate one for the project.
• Sometimes a combination of the models may
be more suitable.

7. Code and Fix

8. Code and Fix
code first
version
operations mode
retirement
modify until
client is satisfied

9. Advantages
• No planning whatsoever; little
management overhead
• Applicable for very small projects
and short-lived prototypes
• Signs of progress early
• Low expertise- anyone can use it

10. Disadvantages
• Dangerous!
• No visibility/control
• No resource Planning
• No Deadline
• Mistakes hard to detect and correct
• Code becomes expensive to fix (bugs are not
found until late in the process)
• Code didn't match user's needs (no
requirements!)
• Code was not planned for modification, not
flexible

11. The Waterfall Model
• The waterfall model is sequential design process,
used in software development processes, in which
progress is seen as flowing steadily downwards
(like a waterfall) through the phases of
• Conception
• Initiation
• Analysis
• Design
• Construction
• Testing
• Production/Implementation
• Maintenance

13. Advantages
• This model is simple and easy to understand and
use.
• It is easy to manage
• In this model phases are processed and
completed one at a time. Phases do not overlap.
• Waterfall model works well for smaller
projects where requirements are very well
understood.

14. Disadvantages
• Once an application is in the testing stage, it is
very difficult to go back and change something
that was not well-thought out in the concept
stage.
• No working software is produced until late
during the life cycle.
• High amounts of risk and uncertainty.

15. Disadvantages..
• Not a good model for complex and
object-oriented projects.
• Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
• Not suitable for the projects where
requirements are at a moderate to high
risk of changing.

16. When to use Waterfall Model
• This model is used only when the requirements
are very well known, clear and fixed.
• Product definition is stable.
• Technology is understood.
• There are no ambiguous requirements
• Ample resources with required expertise are
available freely
• The project is short.

17. Incremental and Iterative
Development models

18. Approach for developing a system
• Incremental Development Model
• Iterative Development Model

19. Incremental Development-staging
and scheduling strategy
• Incrementally add software a time.
• Each increment adds more software.
• Its like adding bricks to a wall. After
lots of increments, you've got a big
wall.

20. Incremental
Development
• Various parts of the system are developed
at different times or rates, and integrated
as they are completed
• Develop the entire system with a “big
bang” integration.”

21. Iterative Development-rework
scheduling strategy
• We build something, then evaluate whether
it'll work for us, then we make changes to it.
• We are expecting to change it.
• We never expected it to be right. If it was,
it's a happy accident
• Iterative” development helps you improve
your product. Each time around the process
you get to change and improve the product
itself

22. Remember..
• Incremental fundamentally means add onto.
– Incremental development helps you improve
your process.
•
Iterative fundamentally means re-do.
– Iterative development helps you improve
your product.

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25. Spiral Model
• The spiral is simply a sequence of
waterfall increments;
• All project activities follow a single spiral
sequence; and
• Every activity in the diagram must be
performed

26. Phases of Spiral
Development
• Planning Phase
• Risk Analysis Phase
• Engineering Phase
• Coding and Implementation Phase
• Evaluation Phase

27. Perform 4 basic
activities in every cycle
– Consider the win conditions of all success-critical
stakeholders.
– Identify and evaluate alternative approaches
for satisfying the win conditions.
– Identify and resolve risks that stem from the
selected approach(es).
– Obtain approval from all success-critical
stakeholders, plus commitment to pursue the
next cycle.

29. Hence
• Thus, the incremental, waterfall,
prototyping, and other process models are
special cases of the spiral model that fit the
risk patterns of certain projects.

30. Advantages
• High amount of risk analysis hence, avoidance of
Risk is enhanced.
• Good for large and mission-critical projects.
• Strong approval and documentation control.
• Additional Functionality can be added at a later
date.
• Software is produced early in the software life
cycle.
• .

31. Disadvantages
• Management is more complex.
• Can be a costly model to use.
• Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise.
• Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk
analysis phase.
• Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.

32. When to use Spiral Model
• When costs and risk evaluation is important
• For medium to high-risk projects
• Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential
changes to economic priorities
• Users are unsure of their needs
• Requirements are complex
• New product line
• Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)

33. Rapid Application Development
(RAD) Model
– Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and
others, James Martin developed the rapid
application development approach during the
1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by
publishing a book in 1991

34. Rapid Application Development
(RAD) Model
• RAD approaches to software development
put less emphasis on planning tasks and more
emphasis on development.
• knowledge gained from the development
process itself can feed back to the
requirements and design of the solution

35. Phases
– The James Martin approach to RAD
divides the process into four distinct
phases:
• Requirements Planning phase
• User design phase
• Construction phase
• Cutover phase

36. Requirements Planning Phase
– combines elements of the system planning and
systems analysis phases
– Users, managers, and IT staff members discuss
and agree on:
• business needs,
• project scope,
• constraints,
• system requirements.
– It ends when the team agrees on the key issues
and obtains management authorization to
continue.

37. User Design Phase
– users interact with systems analysts and develop
models and prototypes that represent all system
processes
– User Design is a continuous interactive process
that allows users to understand, modify, and
eventually approve a working model of the system
that meets their needs.

38. Construction Phase
– focuses on program and application development
– users continue to participate and can still
suggest changes or improvements as actual
screens or reports are developed.
– Its tasks are programming and application
development, coding, unit-integration and system
testing.

39. Cutover Phase
– testing, changeover to the new system, and
user training.
– the entire process is compressed. As a result,
the new system is built, delivered, and placed
in operation much sooner.

41. Advantages
• Risk reduction. A prototype could test some of the
most difficult potential parts of the system early on in
the life-cycle.
• users give much more useful feedback when they can
experience a prototype of the running system rather
than abstractly define what that system should be.
• users could get useful business functionality much
earlier in the process.
• More projects completed on time and within budget

42. Limitations
• The risk of a new approach-developers
not willing to accept this
• Requires time of scarce resources.
– Less control- due to flexibility of design
• Poor design- as we are incorporating
changes many times
• Very large systems could not be
handled

44. Where to use RAD
• RAD should be used only when a system can be
modularized to be delivered in incremental manner.
• It should be used if there's high availability of
designers for modeling.
• It should be used only if the budget permits use of
automated code generating tools.
• Should be used where the requirements change during
the course of the project and working prototypes are
to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3
months.

45. Concurrent Development Model
– The activity – modeling- may be in any one of the
states noted at any given time.
– All activities exist concurrently but reside in
different states.
– The concurrent process model defines a series
of events that will trigger transitions from state
to state for each of the Software engineering
activities, actions, or tasks.

46. Under review
Baselined
Done
Await ing
changes
Under
revision
Under
development
none
Modeling act ivit y
represents the state
of a sof tware engineering
act ivity or task

47. • It defines s/w engg as network of activities each in different
state, each dependent on one another and each going on
concurrently
• Awaiting changes state- after completion of the 1st iteration
• None state- while initial communication is carried out
• Underdevelopment state- after communication is completed
• Awaiting changes state- if any changes in the requirements
must be made

48. Concurrency is achieved
in two ways
• system and component activities occur
simultaneously and can be modeled using the
state-oriented approach described
previously;
• a typical client/server application is
implemented with many components, each of
which can be designed and realized
concurrently.

49. Disadvantages
– Movement of a process among states inside
activity is confusing sometimes.
– Besides it requires more Resource (intellectual).