This document discusses problem solving fundamentals. It defines a problem and problem solving, and discusses problem solving from the perspective of achieving problem goals. It also covers problem solving factors, problem classification, and problem solving models. Specifically, it defines different types of problems, discusses how problems can vary in complexity and structure, and compares tame problems versus wicked problems.

1. Lecture 2: Problem Solving FundamentalsLecture 2: Problem Solving Fundamentals

2. 
 Upon completion of this topic, students will be able to:
1. Define problem and problem solving;
2. Discuss problem solving from the perspective achieving
problem goals;
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES

3. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Problem Solving Terminologies
Conceptual Model of Problem Solving
Problem Solving in Computing
Problem Solving in Systems Engineering
 Some definitions of problemsproblems
 A problem is an obstacle which
makes it difficult to achieve a
desired goal, objective or
purpose
 A discrepancy between existing
and a desired state of affairs.
 A difficulty that has to be
resolved or dealt with
 A cause of several non-
simultaneous errors or accidents.
 An unplanned or unexpected
deviation from a predefined
standard or expectation.
 A situation that leads to a need
or want and that can give rise to
an opportunity
A problemproblem is a situationsituation, quantitative
or otherwise, that confronts an
individual or group of individuals, that
requires resolution, and for which the
individual sees no apparent path to the
solution.
A problem is decided by purposespurposes..
If someone wants money and when he or she has little
money, he or she has a problem.
But if someone does not want money, little money is
not a problem.
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4. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Definition of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Description
Problem Solving Terminologies
Problem solvingProblem solving:
 the ability to get answers to questionsability to get answers to questions through a conscious,
organized process
 a systematic approach utilizing multiple perspectivessystematic approach utilizing multiple perspectives to uncover the
issues related to a particular problem, design an intervention plan,
and evaluate the outcome
 a processprocess in which an individual or a team applies knowledge, skills,applies knowledge, skills,
and understandingand understanding to achieve a desired outcome in an unfamiliar
situation
 higher-order cognitive processhigher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and
control of more routine or fundamental skills
 a series of decisions to resolvea series of decisions to resolve a situation
 a mental processmental process and is part of the larger problem process that
includes problem finding and problem shaping.
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5. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Definition of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Description
Problem Solving Terminologies
Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial
intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired
goal state.
Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial
intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired
goal state.
CURRE
NT
STATE
DESIRDESIR
EDED
STATESTATE
OBSTACLEOBSTACLEVEHICLEVEHICLE
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6. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Definition of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Description
Problem Solving Terminologies
6
Conceptually:

7. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Definition of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Description
Problem Solving Terminologies
CURRE
NT
STATE
DESIRDESIR
EDED
STATESTATE
OBSTACLEOBSTACLEVEHICLEVEHICLE
Problem solving description
RecogniseRecognise there is a problem
Do not know howDo not know how to resolve the problem
Want toWant to resolve the problem
Able toAble to implement solution when found
Physical block: geographical
Mental block : no knowledge, wrong attitude, not ready
Social block: cultural inhibition
Resource block: no capital , manpower, no space, no time
Political block: different political beliefs
Non-existence
Under performed
Wrong vehicle
Unclear
 Addressing problem
DissolveDissolve
ResolveResolve
SolveSolve
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8. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Definition of Problem
Definition of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Description
Problem Solving Terminologies
 Purpose
 Purpose is what we want to do or what we want to be.
 Without clear purposes, we can not think about problems
 Situation
 Situation is just what a circumstance is – neither good or bad
 Usually almost all situations are not problems
 We should capture situations clearly without recognizing them as
problems or non-problems.
 Problems
 Problem is some portions of a situation, which cannot realize purposes
 Since problem solvers often neglect the differences of purposes, they
cannot capture the true problems
 Cause
 Cause is what brings about a problem
 Some problem solvers do not distinguish causes from problems.
 Solvable cause
 Solvable cause is some portions of causes.
 When we solve a problem, we should focus on solvable causes
 Issues
 Issue is the opposite expression of a problemopposite expression of a problem
 If a problem is that we do not have money, the issue is that we get money.
 Solution
 Solution is a specific action to solve a problem, which is equal to a specific
action to realize an issue
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9. The ability to solve problems is a function of
•the nature of the problem,
•the way that the problem is represented to the solver, and
•a host of individual differences that mediate the process.
Problem
Variations
Representation
Individual
Differences
═
Problem
Solving
Skills
Ill-structuredness,
complexity,
abstractness/
situatedness
Context
Social
Historical
Cultural
Cues/clues
Modality
Domain knowledge
Familiarity
Perplexity
Experience
Structural knowledge
Procedural knowledge
Systemic/conceptual knowledge
Domain specific reasoning
Cognitive styles
General problem solving strategies
Self confidence
Motivation/perseverance
http://web.missouri.edu/jonassend/problems.htm
PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
Problem Situation (External) Problem Solver (Internal)
9

10. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
simple/discrete
complex/meta-problem
domain-specific/
situatedness
domain-general/
abstract
well-structured ill-structured
Problems vary in substance, structure, and process
10

11. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
Well-structured vs. Ill-structured problems
Well-structured problems
•Presented as as well-defined problems with a probable solution
•Involve concepts and rules that appear regular and well-structured in a domain of
knowledge that also appears well-structured and predictable
Ill-structured problems
•Not constrained by the content domains being studied in classrooms, their solutions
are not predictable or convergent.
•Have vaguely defined or unclear goals and unstated constraints
•Possess multiple solutions, solution paths, or no solutions at all
Simple vs. Complex problems
The complexity of a problem is a function of the breadth of knowledge required to
solve the problem and the level of prior knowledge.
Simple problems (puzzles)
•A well-defined and well-structured problem with a specific solution that somebody
can work out.
Complex problems (messes)
•Does not yet have a well-defined form or structure.
•The mess is unstructured and must be structured and shape before any solution,
should such exist, can be found
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12. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
Domain Specific (situatedness) vs. Domain General (abstract) problems
Domain specific problems
•Presented as as well-defined problems with a probable solution
•Involve concepts and rules that appear regular and well-structured in a domain of
knowledge that also appears well-structured and predictable
Domain general problems
•Not constrained by the content domains being studied in classrooms, their solutions are not
predictable or convergent.
•Have vaguely defined or unclear goals and unstated constraints
•Possess multiple solutions, solution paths, or no solutions at all
12

13. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
13
Problems also vary in terms of how they are represented to and
perceived by the problem solver.
Problems in everyday and professional contexts are embedded in
those contexts, which requires the problem solver to disambiguate
important from irrelevant information in the context and construct a
problem space that includes relevant information from the context
Designing for problem solving is deciding how to represent the
problem to novice learners.
Issue in problem representation is the fidelity of the representation.
•Adherence: the degree of conformity
•Is the problem represented in its natural complexity and
modality, or is it filtered when simulated?
•Does the problem have to be solved in real time, or can it be
solved in leisure time?
•What levels of cooperation or competition are represented in
the problem?

14. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
14

15. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Problem Solving as a Function
Problem Variations
Problem Representation
Individual Differences
15
Familiarity:
•Strongest predictor of problem-solving ability is the solver's familiarity with
the problem type.
•Experienced problem solvers have better developed problem schemas
•Routine problems – more well-structured – low-road transfer (more transferable)
•Non-routine problems – high-road transfer
•Domain knowledge and structural knowledge
•Domain knowledge
•Structural knowledge:
•knowledge of how concepts within a domain are interrelated.
•Cognitive control
•Individuals also vary in their cognitive styles and controls
• which represent patterns of thinking that control the ways that individuals process
and reason about information
•Affective and Conative
•Affective: attitude and beliefs about the problem and problem domain
•Conative: motivational and volitional –
•engaging intentionally, exerting effort, persistence on task, and making choices
•General problem solving skills
•some people are better problem solvers than others because they use more
effective problem-solving strategies.

16. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
General Types of Problem
Magnitude and Severity of Problems
Tame and Wicked Problems
Problem Typology
 BlocksBlocks – cannot start to do (non-
starters, still-born, etc)
 Power cable missing
 Plans not available
 Loan not yet authorized
 Appropriate language not spoken
 No idea
 MistakesMistakes – defect, errors
 Knock the trip switch
 Put in the wrong box
 Send bid to the wrong site
 Press the wrong key
 Criticize the wrong person
 Breakdown and failures – delaBreakdown and failures – delay
 Leg drop off
 Card jam
 Intermittent contacts
 Supplier defaults
 Walkout, strikes
 Inefficiencies/inadequaciesInefficiencies/inadequacies
• Under or over resourced
• Too many authorization signatures
needed
• Inappropriate tools/skills
• Out-of-date technology
• Sequential rather parallel operation
• Poor attitudes and support
 Variation – erratic, unpredictableVariation – erratic, unpredictable
performance, loss or wasteperformance, loss or waste
• Adhesive to patchy
• Segregation effects
• Temporary staff
• Wood-knot holes
• Absenteeism
 WastageWastage
• Under utilized resources
• Long waiting time
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17. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
General Types of Problem
Magnitude and Severity of Problems
Tame and Wicked Problems
Problem Typology
WASTE
PROBLEM
UNDESIRED EFFECT SOLUTION
Over Production Waste of resources (capital, space,
manpower, etc ); over supply →
price↓
Planning
Waiting Waste time; resource tied-up
(immobilized); not competitive
Scheduling; allocation
Transportation ↑cost; delay; risk Reduce transportation (if
costly); scheduling, allocation
Inventory Waste of resources
Processing Waste time; resource (people,
machine, etc) tied-up (immobilized)
Reduce process cycle; speed
processing;
Motion Waste time Scheduling
Defect Not functional; Waste resources Design; quality model;
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18. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
General Types of Problem
Magnitude and Severity of Problems
Tame and Wicked Problems
Problem Typology
Severity
Level
Explanation
Blocker Level used to indicate a problem which
must be fixed before any next move
Critical Level used to indicate a very important
problem such as a crash or loss
Major Level used to indicate a severe problem but
one that does not cause a crash or loss
Minor Level used for problems which do not affect
the functioning of the program.
Normal Level to use by default and used for the
majority of reports.
Trivial Level used to report typos, aesthetic, and
other very small problems.
Enhancement These are reports which are requests for
future improvements of the program.
 Problem magnitude
 sporadic/acute
/chronic
 most organization solve
acute problems – easier
to handle
 chronic problems are
more complex
 Problem severity
 indicates the
seriousness of the
problem
 Priority
 indicates the desire of
the problem solvers to
address the problem.
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19. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
General Types of Problem
Magnitude and Severity of Problems
Tame and Wicked Problems
Problem Typology
 Tame ProblemTame Problem
 has a relatively well-defined and stable problem statement.
 has a definite stopping point, i.e. we know when the solution or a solution is reached.
 has a solution which can be objectively evaluated as being right or wrong.
 belongs to a class of similar problems which can be solved in a similar manner.
 has solutions which can be tried and abandoned.
 Wicked ProblemWicked Problem
 A "wicked" problem or messmess as one that could be clearly defined only by solving it, or
by solving part of it* (Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber)
 This paradox implies, essentially, that you have to "solve" the problem once in order to clearly define it and
then solve it again to create a solution that works.
 Wicked problems have
 incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements
 Solutions to them are often difficult to recognize as such because of complex
interdependencies.
 Rittel and Webber stated that while attempting to solve a wicked problem, the solution of one of its aspects
may reveal or create other, even more complex problems.
 Wicked problems always occur in a social contextsocial context
 the wickedness of the problem reflects the diversity among the stakeholders in the problem.
 Understanding a wicked problem is about collectively making sense of the situationmaking sense of the situation
and coming to shared understanding aboutshared understanding about whowho wantswants whatwhat..
 We do not really solve wicked problem – we tametame wicked problem
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20. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
General Types of Problem
Magnitude and Severity of Problems
Tame and Wicked Problems
Problem Typology
Problem Types Case Component Cognitive Scaffolds
Story problems
(narrative)
Problems, worked examples,
analogues
Problem schema, analogical, causal,
questioning, argumentation, modelling
Rule using / Rule
induction
Problems, worked examples,
analogues
Problem schema, analogical, causal,
questioning
Decision making Problem, case studies,
alternative perspectives
Causal, argumentation, modelling, mental
simulation (scenario construction)
Trouble shooting/
diagnosis solution
Problems, prior experiences,
alternative perspectives
Causal, argumentation, modelling
Strategic performance Problems, prior experiences,
simulations
Problem schema, analogical, causal,
mental simulation (scenario constructio
Policy analysis Problems, case studies, prior
experiences, alternative
perspectives
Analogical, causal, questioning,
argumentation, modelling
Design Problems, prior experiences,
alternative perspectives
Causal, argumentation, modelling
Dilemmas Problems, alternative
perspectives
Argumentation, scenarios
20

21. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
21
 Dewy (1938)
 Distributed equilibrium – noticing the problem
 Hypothesis formulation – identify tentative cause
 Experimental testing – hypothesis testing
 Settled outcome – action taken to remove the cause
 Osborne (1957)
 Orientation – pointing out the problem
 Preparation – gathering the data
 Analysis – reduce data to fundamental aspects
 Hypothesis – generate alternative solutions
 Incubation –let it all “bake”
 Synthesis – put all the pieces together
 Verification – evaluate the results

22. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
22
General Model of ProblemGeneral Model of Problem
Solving ProcessSolving Process
Problem
Recognition
Problem
Statement
Solution
Analysis Analysis
•Data Gathering
•Pre-processing
•Cleansing
•Filtering
•Understanding the problem
•Formulating the solution plan
•Implementing the solution
•Evaluating the solution
 The problem solving
process consists of a
sequence of sections that
fit together depending on
the type of problem to be
solved.
 Problem Definition.
 Problem Analysis.
 Generating possible
Solutions.
 Analyzing the Solutions.
 Selecting the best
Solution(s).
 Planning the next course
of action (Next Steps)

23. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
23
Solution
Implementation
Problem
Formulation
Problem
Solving
Objectives:
•The steps of problem solving
•Strategies for generating, analyzing, and selecting
alternatives
•Making progress

24. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
24
Definition SolutionAnalysis
Communication of problem solving is orderly, like this …
Thinking while problem solving is NOT orderly like this …
Definition SolutionAnalysis
Or Like this …
Definition Analysis
Solution
Definition simplifies
Analysis clarifies

25. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
25
BUT Like this
Idea
Solution
Analysis
Definition Solution
Definition
Analysis
Idea
Idea
Idea
Typically, we begin with an instantaneous, intuitive, solution concept.
It is tested and modified iteratively as necessary for acceptance or rejection.

26. PROBLEM AND PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING FACTORS
PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
PROBLEM SOLVING MODELS
Scientific View of Problem Solving
Problem Solving Process Model
Problem Solving Steps
Conceptual View of Problem Solving
2626
O’Loughlin and McFadzean (1999)
Input Transformation Output Implementation
Organizational
Characteristics
-Culture -Resources
-Structure -Rewards
-Strategy
Individual Characteristics
-Cognitive Abilities-Style
-Personality
-Intrinsic Motivation
-Knowledge
-Experience
Group Characteristics
-Norms - Cohesiveness
-Size - Diversity
-Roles - Task
-Communication
-Problem Solving
Approaches
Problem Characteristics
-Structured
-Semi-structured
-Ill-structured
Paradigm Preserving
-Brainstorming
-Brain wiring
-Game Theory
-Decision Analysis
Paradigm Stretching
-Cognitive Maps
-Lateral Thinking
-Thunks
-Breakthrough
Thinking
Paradigm Breaking
-Guided Fantasy
-Analogies
-Wishful thinking
-Object Simulation, etc
Unactioned Output
Reassessment of Objectives
Output
-Solution (s)
-Unintended Consequences
-Information
-Creativity
-Innovation
Actionable Output
ImplementationInformation/
Solution
Storage and
(Re)
Distribution
Re-examination and Storage Loop
Information Review Loop