This document discusses principles of teaching and learning. It defines teaching as a process of interacting with students to enable them to acquire knowledge, skills, and values through organized activities and instructional strategies. Teaching is both a science and an art. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, learner, content/strategies, and their interplay. Principles of learning include that it is learner-activated, discovery-based, experiential, collaborative, evolutionary, and involves both intellect and emotion. Effective instruction follows principles of context, focus, socialization, individualization, sequence, and evaluation. Student grouping and teaching models also impact instruction management. The document differentiates techniques, methods, strategies, approaches, and principles
The document discusses the learning process and defines its key aspects. It explains that learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior through experience and practice. The teacher must understand learning principles and theories to facilitate the learning success of students. Learning is significant as it transmits knowledge and social norms between generations, allowing the continuation of culture and technology. There are different types of learning, including sensory-motor learning about the external world, cognitive learning of ideas and concepts, and affective learning involving emotions.
Transfer of learning involves applying knowledge gained in one context to another context. It is important for students' cognitive development but does not always occur naturally. There are several ways to promote positive transfer, including emphasizing similarities between contexts, teaching critical attributes, and allowing students to generate their own examples. Positive transfer occurs when students can apply past learning to new situations, while negative transfer happens when students incorrectly see similarities between unrelated concepts. Teachers should teach related concepts separately and emphasize differences initially to promote effective transfer of learning.
Social cognitive learning – Albert Bandura Suresh Babu
Albert Bandura developed the Social Cognitive Theory, which posits that learning occurs through observation and modeling within a dynamic social environment. Key aspects of the theory include: reciprocal determinism between personal factors, environmental influences, and behavior; observational learning; and self-efficacy. The theory emphasizes how people can learn through observing others, and explores the role of reinforcement, both direct and vicarious. Behavior is explained as being influenced through continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors.
Dimensions and principles of curriculum designJay Cee
The document discusses key principles of curriculum design: scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation, and balance. It defines each principle and provides examples. Scope refers to the breadth of content, topics, and experiences in the educational plan. Sequence involves organizing content in a logical order from simple to complex. Continuity provides vertical repetition to strengthen learning. Integration draws from real-world themes to connect subject matter. Articulation sequences content both vertically between grades and horizontally within grades. Balance establishes equitable allocation of elements in the curriculum.
Jerome Bruner developed concepts around how children learn and develop representations of the world. He proposed that children progress through enactive, iconic, and symbolic representations as they develop. Bruner also developed the idea of a spiral curriculum where the same concepts are revisited at increasing levels of difficulty. His work emphasized the importance of discovery learning where students explore concepts with preparation and guidance from teachers. Bruner identified four major aspects of instruction including predisposition to learn, structure of learning material, sequencing of lessons, and reinforcement. He also studied categorization and proposed rules for how categories are formed based on attributes, combinations of attributes, weight of properties, and acceptance limits.
The document discusses the key roles of a teacher in a classroom learning situation. It identifies the teacher as a model, classroom manager, facilitator of learning, and evaluator of student learning. As a model, the teacher should be motivational, optimistic, diligent, enthusiastic, and lovable. As a manager, the teacher determines the classroom climate and environment. They can have authoritarian, laissez-faire, or democratic relationships with students. As a facilitator, the teacher leads the learning process using principles like goal-setting, motivation, feedback and adapting to students. As an evaluator, the teacher assesses student achievement to guide further learning goals. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are discussed.
This document challenges the reader to explain, advocate for, and identify ways to apply 14 principles of learning in instruction as a future teacher. The principles are intended to holistically address learners in real-world learning situations and emphasize that learning is an intentional process of constructing meaning, linking new information to existing knowledge, and using thinking strategies. Learning is influenced by environmental and motivational factors.
The document discusses the learning process and defines its key aspects. It explains that learning involves a relatively permanent change in behavior through experience and practice. The teacher must understand learning principles and theories to facilitate the learning success of students. Learning is significant as it transmits knowledge and social norms between generations, allowing the continuation of culture and technology. There are different types of learning, including sensory-motor learning about the external world, cognitive learning of ideas and concepts, and affective learning involving emotions.
Transfer of learning involves applying knowledge gained in one context to another context. It is important for students' cognitive development but does not always occur naturally. There are several ways to promote positive transfer, including emphasizing similarities between contexts, teaching critical attributes, and allowing students to generate their own examples. Positive transfer occurs when students can apply past learning to new situations, while negative transfer happens when students incorrectly see similarities between unrelated concepts. Teachers should teach related concepts separately and emphasize differences initially to promote effective transfer of learning.
Social cognitive learning – Albert Bandura Suresh Babu
Albert Bandura developed the Social Cognitive Theory, which posits that learning occurs through observation and modeling within a dynamic social environment. Key aspects of the theory include: reciprocal determinism between personal factors, environmental influences, and behavior; observational learning; and self-efficacy. The theory emphasizes how people can learn through observing others, and explores the role of reinforcement, both direct and vicarious. Behavior is explained as being influenced through continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental factors.
Dimensions and principles of curriculum designJay Cee
The document discusses key principles of curriculum design: scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation, and balance. It defines each principle and provides examples. Scope refers to the breadth of content, topics, and experiences in the educational plan. Sequence involves organizing content in a logical order from simple to complex. Continuity provides vertical repetition to strengthen learning. Integration draws from real-world themes to connect subject matter. Articulation sequences content both vertically between grades and horizontally within grades. Balance establishes equitable allocation of elements in the curriculum.
Jerome Bruner developed concepts around how children learn and develop representations of the world. He proposed that children progress through enactive, iconic, and symbolic representations as they develop. Bruner also developed the idea of a spiral curriculum where the same concepts are revisited at increasing levels of difficulty. His work emphasized the importance of discovery learning where students explore concepts with preparation and guidance from teachers. Bruner identified four major aspects of instruction including predisposition to learn, structure of learning material, sequencing of lessons, and reinforcement. He also studied categorization and proposed rules for how categories are formed based on attributes, combinations of attributes, weight of properties, and acceptance limits.
The document discusses the key roles of a teacher in a classroom learning situation. It identifies the teacher as a model, classroom manager, facilitator of learning, and evaluator of student learning. As a model, the teacher should be motivational, optimistic, diligent, enthusiastic, and lovable. As a manager, the teacher determines the classroom climate and environment. They can have authoritarian, laissez-faire, or democratic relationships with students. As a facilitator, the teacher leads the learning process using principles like goal-setting, motivation, feedback and adapting to students. As an evaluator, the teacher assesses student achievement to guide further learning goals. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are discussed.
This document challenges the reader to explain, advocate for, and identify ways to apply 14 principles of learning in instruction as a future teacher. The principles are intended to holistically address learners in real-world learning situations and emphasize that learning is an intentional process of constructing meaning, linking new information to existing knowledge, and using thinking strategies. Learning is influenced by environmental and motivational factors.
-Motivation
Is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something.
While ability refers to what children can do, motivation refers to what this children will do.
Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior.
When we get motivated to do something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it.
Our attraction towards it becomes so intense that we persist working on it through thick and thin until its completion.
-Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
Your students level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action, intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you have a student who is excited about learning and accomplishing things. S/he has takes the initiative to undertake learning task, assignments and projects without being pushed by his or her teachers and parents.
S/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is asked to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals s/he has set for herself/himself and his/her dream in life. S/he is willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals.
TYPES
INTRINSIC
It is intrinsic when the source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake.
EXTRINSIC
Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone or something outside him/her. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end.
The Role of Extrinsic Motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate unmotivated students to study, Why not? For as long as students are hardly motivated, external motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant role in the development of motivated students. Its is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced by internal motivation.
The document discusses the nature and importance of learning. It provides several definitions of learning from educational and psychological perspectives that emphasize modification of behavior through experience. Key characteristics of learning mentioned are that it is a continuous process of change that allows organisms to adapt to their environment. Several principles of learning are outlined, including readiness, exercise, primacy, recency, intensity, and freedom. Learning is described as an active process that is most effective when students are physically and mentally prepared, motivated through emotional reactions, and given freedom of choice, action, and responsibility.
The document discusses the topical approach to teaching social science. It explains that the topical approach revolves content around a series of interconnected topics that are suitable for students' ages, abilities, and interests. Examples provided include focusing on discrete historical events, eras, or other topics. Key merits are that an integrated knowledge is imparted, learning is related to life, and student interest and motivation remain high. However, difficulties include that the approach is challenging to adopt and requires good resources like libraries and competent teachers.
The document discusses the integrated approach to education, which creates a learner-centered curriculum based on students' interests that allows flexible and engaging learning. It values enhancing learning through learner-centered activities in real-life contexts that encourage critical thinking and problem-solving. An effective integrated approach requires reassessing the learning process with open-ended questions and information skills to promote active, collaborative, and creative learning that breaks down barriers between subjects. Educators take the role of facilitating student-driven constructive and resource-based learning. The document outlines steps to integrate information and communication technology into the curriculum through research, staff training, piloting, and ongoing evaluation for continuous improvement.
This document discusses principles of teaching and instruction. It defines teaching as a process of interacting that engages students in learning activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values. Teaching involves both science and art, using psychological research and creative implementation. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, learner, content/strategies, and their interplay. Principles of learning include that it is experiential, discovery-based, evolutionary, and involves the whole person - intellectually and emotionally. Effective instruction follows principles like context, focus, socialization, individualization, sequence, and evaluation. Instruction can be managed through homogeneous, heterogeneous, or non-graded student groupings.
The document discusses the teacher's role in evaluation. There are two types of evaluation - formal and informal. The most important reason for a teacher to evaluate children's work is to assess their progress and ensure lessons are meeting goals and objectives. Successful evaluation involves planning goals in advance, keeping goals in mind during activities, and using various tools to evaluate after activities while still considering goals. Planning is also discussed as an essential role and skill for teachers, with benefits like ensuring lessons are balanced, giving teachers confidence, and being a sign of professionalism. Principles of effective planning include having a clear aim, variety, and flexibility.
This document outlines the personal qualities and attitudes that effective teachers should possess. It identifies good personality, honesty, enthusiasm, caring, being a role model, fairness, friendliness, respect, dedication, creativity, and flexibility as key personal qualities. Additionally, it states that professional teachers demonstrate empathy, commitment to their profession, reflective practice, and a passion for teaching. The document also defines what constitutes a profession and lists criteria for professional teachers, including professional preparation, licensure, public service, adherence to ethics, and membership in professional organizations. It notes that teachers are active members of important social institutions like family, education, religion, and government.
This document discusses what makes an effective teacher. It provides quotes and perspectives from experts on teaching and education. Some key points:
- An effective teacher inspires students to learn, differentiates instruction, and evaluates progress through multiple assessments. They make learning engaging and fun.
- Quotes emphasize the importance of nurturing students like seeds, treating them with respect, and helping them develop a growth mindset.
- A good lesson plan has clear objectives, engages students, provides guided and independent practice, and evaluates learning. It considers students' needs and prior knowledge.
- Effective planning is essential for a teacher. It provides structure and direction while allowing for flexibility. It enhances student achievement and avoids surprises
The document outlines five perspectives on teaching adults:
1) Transmission - Effective teaching requires subject matter expertise and conveying enthusiasm to students.
2) Apprenticeship - Effective teaching involves socializing students into professional norms and revealing skilled performance. Teachers provide guidance and responsibility as skills develop.
3) Developmental - Effective teaching considers the student's perspective and challenges them to more complex thinking by engaging with content.
4) Nurturing - Effective teaching provides academic and emotional support through clear standards, peer and teacher support, and acknowledging effort and growth.
5) Social Reform - Effective teaching aims to change society by awakening students to embedded values and ideologies and encouraging critique of knowledge construction.
This document discusses interactive teaching strategies. It defines teaching strategies as long-term plans to achieve learning goals. When choosing strategies, teachers must consider objectives, subject matter, learners, policies. The top 10 strategies discussed are: setting specific outcomes, show and tell, asking questions, graphical summaries, authentic tasks, accommodating different learning styles through visual, auditory and kinesthetic methods. Interactive strategies blend learning styles to ensure all learners succeed.
Inductive, Deductive, Integrated and Lecture Method of TeachingVhey Razon
The document discusses different teaching methods including inductive, deductive, and integrated methods. The inductive method goes from specific examples to general principles, while the deductive method goes the other way, from general principles to specific examples. The integrated method combines aspects of different methods. Both inductive and deductive teaching have benefits, and combining the two into an integrated approach can optimize learning.
Constructivism in Teaching discusses constructivist teaching methods. It defines constructivism as a learning theory where learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflection. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher acts as a facilitator by prompting discussion and asking questions rather than direct instruction, allowing students to develop their own conclusions. Key aspects of constructivist teaching include student-centered active learning activities, a democratic environment where students share responsibility, and the teacher taking on coaching and mentoring roles to support student learning.
Transfer of learning refers to how knowledge and skills learned in one context can be applied in another context. Early research by Thorndike and Woodworth explored how learning transfers between similar tasks. Transfer of learning depends on factors like the similarity between the original learning task and new transfer task, the level of understanding achieved during initial learning, the context of learning, opportunities for practice, and motivation. Educators can promote transfer by teaching in meaningful contexts, providing varied practice opportunities over time, and encouraging positive attitudes.
A Power Point Presentation of the Topic ''The PRINCIPLES of LEARNING'' on the subject '' The Principles of Teaching 1''
Contains the following:
-9 Principles of Learning by Horne and Pine
-Laws of Learning by Thorndike
with Pictures to be easily understand, or for to you ask share their insight about the given principles, Quotation related to the topic and also a special video.
Hope it will help you, thank you~
This document discusses transfer of learning, which refers to applying knowledge or skills learned in one context to another new context. It defines transfer of learning and discusses various types of transfer. Theories of transfer from scholars like Crow and Crow, Peterson, and Guthrie are presented. Factors that influence transfer, like curriculum design, teaching methods, learner characteristics, are explained. Implications for teachers and learners are discussed to improve transfer. Theories like identical elements theory and generalization theory are summarized.
Nature, Concepts and Purposes of CurriculumRandy Dacuro
This document discusses the key components and approaches of curriculum development. It identifies the main components as: aims/goals/objectives, subject matter/content, learning experiences, and evaluation approaches. For each component, it provides examples from the Philippine education system and discusses criteria for determining them. The main curriculum approaches covered are behavioral, which aims for efficiency, and conceptual/cognitive, which focuses on conceptual understanding. It emphasizes that curriculum components should be interrelated and feedback from evaluation should inform improvement.
Albert Bandura was a Canadian psychologist born in 1925 who developed the social learning theory. The theory proposes that people can learn through observation of others, whether live models, verbal instruction, or symbolic models in media. The process involves paying attention, retaining information, reproducing behaviors, and being motivated by reinforcement or punishment. Bandura's theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning and modeling in education and socialization.
This document discusses effective lesson planning and design, specifically backwards design. It emphasizes the importance of setting clear and measurable learning objectives aligned to standards. The backwards design process is outlined as starting with defining the desired learning outcome, then developing assessments, and finally planning learning activities. An example is provided of modeling this process to plan a lesson on creating scaled bar graphs. Backwards design is contrasted with more traditional planning approaches that start with activities rather than desired learning outcomes.
This document discusses principles of teaching and learning. It covers key topics such as:
1. Teaching involves engaging students in activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values. It is both a science and an art.
2. The teacher, learner, content, and teaching strategies all interact in the teaching-learning process. Learning styles and principles must be considered.
3. There are various approaches to teaching such as direct and indirect. Different methods, strategies, and principles should be selected based on factors like the learners and objectives.
1. Teaching involves engaging students in activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values through interaction between the teacher, student, content, and strategies. It is both a science and an art.
2. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, student, content/strategies, and their interplay. The teacher selects appropriate content and strategies while the student's background and characteristics influence learning.
3. Effective instruction follows principles such as learning being student-centered and discovery-based, experience-driven, collaborative, evolutionary, and addressing individual differences through various intelligences and learning styles.
-Motivation
Is an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something.
While ability refers to what children can do, motivation refers to what this children will do.
Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior.
When we get motivated to do something, it is not enough that we start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it.
Our attraction towards it becomes so intense that we persist working on it through thick and thin until its completion.
-Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
Your students level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action, intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you have a student who is excited about learning and accomplishing things. S/he has takes the initiative to undertake learning task, assignments and projects without being pushed by his or her teachers and parents.
S/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is asked to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the goals s/he has set for herself/himself and his/her dream in life. S/he is willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals.
TYPES
INTRINSIC
It is intrinsic when the source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake.
EXTRINSIC
Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is someone or something outside him/her. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end.
The Role of Extrinsic Motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate unmotivated students to study, Why not? For as long as students are hardly motivated, external motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant role in the development of motivated students. Its is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced by internal motivation.
The document discusses the nature and importance of learning. It provides several definitions of learning from educational and psychological perspectives that emphasize modification of behavior through experience. Key characteristics of learning mentioned are that it is a continuous process of change that allows organisms to adapt to their environment. Several principles of learning are outlined, including readiness, exercise, primacy, recency, intensity, and freedom. Learning is described as an active process that is most effective when students are physically and mentally prepared, motivated through emotional reactions, and given freedom of choice, action, and responsibility.
The document discusses the topical approach to teaching social science. It explains that the topical approach revolves content around a series of interconnected topics that are suitable for students' ages, abilities, and interests. Examples provided include focusing on discrete historical events, eras, or other topics. Key merits are that an integrated knowledge is imparted, learning is related to life, and student interest and motivation remain high. However, difficulties include that the approach is challenging to adopt and requires good resources like libraries and competent teachers.
The document discusses the integrated approach to education, which creates a learner-centered curriculum based on students' interests that allows flexible and engaging learning. It values enhancing learning through learner-centered activities in real-life contexts that encourage critical thinking and problem-solving. An effective integrated approach requires reassessing the learning process with open-ended questions and information skills to promote active, collaborative, and creative learning that breaks down barriers between subjects. Educators take the role of facilitating student-driven constructive and resource-based learning. The document outlines steps to integrate information and communication technology into the curriculum through research, staff training, piloting, and ongoing evaluation for continuous improvement.
This document discusses principles of teaching and instruction. It defines teaching as a process of interacting that engages students in learning activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values. Teaching involves both science and art, using psychological research and creative implementation. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, learner, content/strategies, and their interplay. Principles of learning include that it is experiential, discovery-based, evolutionary, and involves the whole person - intellectually and emotionally. Effective instruction follows principles like context, focus, socialization, individualization, sequence, and evaluation. Instruction can be managed through homogeneous, heterogeneous, or non-graded student groupings.
The document discusses the teacher's role in evaluation. There are two types of evaluation - formal and informal. The most important reason for a teacher to evaluate children's work is to assess their progress and ensure lessons are meeting goals and objectives. Successful evaluation involves planning goals in advance, keeping goals in mind during activities, and using various tools to evaluate after activities while still considering goals. Planning is also discussed as an essential role and skill for teachers, with benefits like ensuring lessons are balanced, giving teachers confidence, and being a sign of professionalism. Principles of effective planning include having a clear aim, variety, and flexibility.
This document outlines the personal qualities and attitudes that effective teachers should possess. It identifies good personality, honesty, enthusiasm, caring, being a role model, fairness, friendliness, respect, dedication, creativity, and flexibility as key personal qualities. Additionally, it states that professional teachers demonstrate empathy, commitment to their profession, reflective practice, and a passion for teaching. The document also defines what constitutes a profession and lists criteria for professional teachers, including professional preparation, licensure, public service, adherence to ethics, and membership in professional organizations. It notes that teachers are active members of important social institutions like family, education, religion, and government.
This document discusses what makes an effective teacher. It provides quotes and perspectives from experts on teaching and education. Some key points:
- An effective teacher inspires students to learn, differentiates instruction, and evaluates progress through multiple assessments. They make learning engaging and fun.
- Quotes emphasize the importance of nurturing students like seeds, treating them with respect, and helping them develop a growth mindset.
- A good lesson plan has clear objectives, engages students, provides guided and independent practice, and evaluates learning. It considers students' needs and prior knowledge.
- Effective planning is essential for a teacher. It provides structure and direction while allowing for flexibility. It enhances student achievement and avoids surprises
The document outlines five perspectives on teaching adults:
1) Transmission - Effective teaching requires subject matter expertise and conveying enthusiasm to students.
2) Apprenticeship - Effective teaching involves socializing students into professional norms and revealing skilled performance. Teachers provide guidance and responsibility as skills develop.
3) Developmental - Effective teaching considers the student's perspective and challenges them to more complex thinking by engaging with content.
4) Nurturing - Effective teaching provides academic and emotional support through clear standards, peer and teacher support, and acknowledging effort and growth.
5) Social Reform - Effective teaching aims to change society by awakening students to embedded values and ideologies and encouraging critique of knowledge construction.
This document discusses interactive teaching strategies. It defines teaching strategies as long-term plans to achieve learning goals. When choosing strategies, teachers must consider objectives, subject matter, learners, policies. The top 10 strategies discussed are: setting specific outcomes, show and tell, asking questions, graphical summaries, authentic tasks, accommodating different learning styles through visual, auditory and kinesthetic methods. Interactive strategies blend learning styles to ensure all learners succeed.
Inductive, Deductive, Integrated and Lecture Method of TeachingVhey Razon
The document discusses different teaching methods including inductive, deductive, and integrated methods. The inductive method goes from specific examples to general principles, while the deductive method goes the other way, from general principles to specific examples. The integrated method combines aspects of different methods. Both inductive and deductive teaching have benefits, and combining the two into an integrated approach can optimize learning.
Constructivism in Teaching discusses constructivist teaching methods. It defines constructivism as a learning theory where learners actively construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflection. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher acts as a facilitator by prompting discussion and asking questions rather than direct instruction, allowing students to develop their own conclusions. Key aspects of constructivist teaching include student-centered active learning activities, a democratic environment where students share responsibility, and the teacher taking on coaching and mentoring roles to support student learning.
Transfer of learning refers to how knowledge and skills learned in one context can be applied in another context. Early research by Thorndike and Woodworth explored how learning transfers between similar tasks. Transfer of learning depends on factors like the similarity between the original learning task and new transfer task, the level of understanding achieved during initial learning, the context of learning, opportunities for practice, and motivation. Educators can promote transfer by teaching in meaningful contexts, providing varied practice opportunities over time, and encouraging positive attitudes.
A Power Point Presentation of the Topic ''The PRINCIPLES of LEARNING'' on the subject '' The Principles of Teaching 1''
Contains the following:
-9 Principles of Learning by Horne and Pine
-Laws of Learning by Thorndike
with Pictures to be easily understand, or for to you ask share their insight about the given principles, Quotation related to the topic and also a special video.
Hope it will help you, thank you~
This document discusses transfer of learning, which refers to applying knowledge or skills learned in one context to another new context. It defines transfer of learning and discusses various types of transfer. Theories of transfer from scholars like Crow and Crow, Peterson, and Guthrie are presented. Factors that influence transfer, like curriculum design, teaching methods, learner characteristics, are explained. Implications for teachers and learners are discussed to improve transfer. Theories like identical elements theory and generalization theory are summarized.
Nature, Concepts and Purposes of CurriculumRandy Dacuro
This document discusses the key components and approaches of curriculum development. It identifies the main components as: aims/goals/objectives, subject matter/content, learning experiences, and evaluation approaches. For each component, it provides examples from the Philippine education system and discusses criteria for determining them. The main curriculum approaches covered are behavioral, which aims for efficiency, and conceptual/cognitive, which focuses on conceptual understanding. It emphasizes that curriculum components should be interrelated and feedback from evaluation should inform improvement.
Albert Bandura was a Canadian psychologist born in 1925 who developed the social learning theory. The theory proposes that people can learn through observation of others, whether live models, verbal instruction, or symbolic models in media. The process involves paying attention, retaining information, reproducing behaviors, and being motivated by reinforcement or punishment. Bandura's theory emphasizes the importance of observational learning and modeling in education and socialization.
This document discusses effective lesson planning and design, specifically backwards design. It emphasizes the importance of setting clear and measurable learning objectives aligned to standards. The backwards design process is outlined as starting with defining the desired learning outcome, then developing assessments, and finally planning learning activities. An example is provided of modeling this process to plan a lesson on creating scaled bar graphs. Backwards design is contrasted with more traditional planning approaches that start with activities rather than desired learning outcomes.
This document discusses principles of teaching and learning. It covers key topics such as:
1. Teaching involves engaging students in activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values. It is both a science and an art.
2. The teacher, learner, content, and teaching strategies all interact in the teaching-learning process. Learning styles and principles must be considered.
3. There are various approaches to teaching such as direct and indirect. Different methods, strategies, and principles should be selected based on factors like the learners and objectives.
1. Teaching involves engaging students in activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values through interaction between the teacher, student, content, and strategies. It is both a science and an art.
2. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, student, content/strategies, and their interplay. The teacher selects appropriate content and strategies while the student's background and characteristics influence learning.
3. Effective instruction follows principles such as learning being student-centered and discovery-based, experience-driven, collaborative, evolutionary, and addressing individual differences through various intelligences and learning styles.
Didactica del ingles por Jessica MontaguanoJessylokita
This document discusses key concepts in didactics and the teaching and learning process. It defines didactics as the scientific study of teaching methods, and identifies five components of the teaching situation: the student, teacher, objectives, content, and teaching methods. It describes stages of learning as initial confusion, analysis, and synthesis. Signs that students are learning include note-taking, organizing, discussing, and comparing. The roles of the teacher are to guide learning, encourage students, and take into account their abilities. Didactics aims to make teaching and learning more effective.
Curriculum procedure and curriculum evaluationNANCYLARGADO1
This document discusses curriculum development and instructional supervision. It covers topics like curriculum adaptation, mastery learning, cooperative learning, computer-assisted instruction, and curriculum evaluation. For curriculum adaptation, it explains that this is modifying the prescribed program of studies to meet students' learning needs. Mastery learning aims to help all students achieve a high level of understanding in a given domain. Cooperative learning involves small groups working together to maximize their own and each other's learning. Computer-assisted instruction provides feedback to students on their answers. Curriculum evaluation measures the extent to which planned courses and programs achieve expected results.
The document discusses the different types and components of curriculum. It identifies 9 types of curriculum: recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed, learned, hidden, concomitant, and phantom. It also discusses 4 key components of curriculum - aims and objectives, content/subject matter, curriculum experience (instructional strategies), and evaluation. The types and components show the complex and multifaceted nature of curriculum.
The document discusses different types of curriculum design, including:
- Core curriculum which focuses on essential learning experiences for all students.
- Integrated curriculum which connects learning across disciplines around themes.
- Activity-based curriculum which is based on student needs and interests and promotes learning by doing.
- Learner-centered curriculum which emphasizes individual student development and emerges from their needs and interests.
- Teacher-centered curriculum where the teacher passes knowledge to students and determines curriculum standards and methods.
The document provides definitions, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of these different curriculum designs.
MAKING SENSE OF THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS.pptxMichelleMallorca2
This document discusses the teaching and learning process. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding concepts of teaching and learning and appreciating the process. It then defines teaching and learning, noting that teaching includes planning, implementation, assessment and revision, while learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skills. It also discusses learning domains and models like experience-reflection learning. The document outlines goals of teaching like helping students become independent and self-regulated learners. It concludes by presenting 10 principles of effective teaching and learning, such as the teacher being a role model, learning being an active process, using prior knowledge, and feedback enhancing learning.
This document provides information about lesson planning for teaching nursing students. It defines a lesson plan as a plan prepared by a teacher to teach a lesson in an organized manner. It discusses the origins and evolution of lesson planning, including its roots in Gestalt theory. It also outlines various components of an effective lesson plan such as objectives, content, teaching methods, and evaluation. Finally, it provides guidelines for student teachers to follow when developing and implementing their own lesson plans during teaching practice.
The document discusses various methods of teaching science, including teacher-centered, student-centered, lecture-discussion, laboratory, observation, project, and problem-solving methods. It provides details on the principles, roles of teachers, merits and limitations of each method. The key methods are lecture-discussion, which combines lecture and discussion; laboratory, which emphasizes hands-on learning; observation, where students acquire knowledge through observing; and project and problem-solving methods, which focus on purposeful, real-world activities and problem-solving. The document concludes that teachers must consider their students and circumstances to choose the most suitable teaching method.
CURRICULUM-DESIGN - Micro and macro.pptxGopiMecheri1
This document provides an overview of curriculum design concepts from a presentation by Dr. Sheila Marie N. Bugayong. It discusses how teachers serve as curriculum designers and should involve learners in a planned sequence of learning experiences. The document outlines Peter Oliva's 10 axioms for effective curriculum design, including that curriculum changes with the times and involves stakeholder input. It also describes the key elements of curriculum design, such as specifying intended learning outcomes, determining appropriate content and references, selecting teaching methods, and planning assessment of learning.
This document discusses various teaching methods and strategies. It outlines four main methods of presenting subject matter: telling, doing, visual, and mental. It then defines teaching strategies as generalized plans for lessons that include structure, objectives, and evaluation tactics. Strategies are distinguished from methods in considering objectives over content presentation. Autocratic and democratic strategies are described as either teacher-centered or student-centered. Specific strategies like storytelling, lecture, demonstration, and discussion methods are then outlined, along with their advantages and suggestions.
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This document discusses various teaching methods and strategies. It outlines four main methods of presenting subject matter: telling, doing, visual, and mental. It then defines teaching strategies as generalized plans for lessons that include structure, objectives, and evaluation tactics. Strategies are distinguished from methods in considering objectives over content presentation. Autocratic and democratic strategies are described as either teacher-centered or student-centered. Specific strategies like storytelling, lecture, demonstration, and discussion methods are then outlined, with suggestions and applications provided.
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DISCLAIMER: I do not claim ownership of the photos, videos, templates, and etc used in this slideshow.
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2. WHAT IS TEACHING
a process of interacting
Stands for pedagogy, training and
nurturing
The process of engaging students in
activities that will enable them to
acquire the knowledge, skills, as well as
wothwhile values and attitudes.
3. An aggregate of organized strategies
and activities aimed at inducing
learning
Overall cluster of activities associated
with a teacher, and including explaining,
questioning, demonstrating and
motivating.
A system of activities whereby all
teachers' instructional tasks enable the
students to learn.
4. Is both science and art; SCIENCE as it is
based on psychological research that
identifies “cause and effect
relationship” between teaching and
learning; ART, as it shows how those
relationships are implemented in
successful and artistic teaching.
Is the greatest of the arts because the
medium is the human mind and spirit.
5. Involves values, experiences,
insights, imagination and
appreciation- - - the “staff” that can
not be easily observed and
measured (Greene)
Involves the interplay among such
factors as the teacher, the learner,
the teaching content and strategies
as this diagram shows:
6. THE TEACHER
A key factor in any teaching – learning process.
Constructs well designed plan to achieve to objectives of the
lesson.
Prepares learning environment.
Selects appropriate content/ strategies and learning activities.
Adjusts content/activities strategies/ learning environment to the
learners.
7. THE LEARNER
He is an embodied spirit.
He is a union of a sentient body and a rational
soul.
Most important element of teaching.
The natural characteristics of learners are:
age, maturity, grade level, health, abilities,
family background, experiences and motivation
and his /her culture including values, attitudes
and traditions which influence the teaching –
learning process to a very large extent.
8. THE CONTENT/ TEACHING STRATEGIES
The choice of content/ subject matter to be taught to achieve
desired objectives of the lesson.
The selection of appropriate instructional materials/technology to
facilitate learning.
The use of appropriate/effective methods and strategies of
teaching to arrive at the desired outcomes.
9. “THE ABILITY TO LEARN
IS THE MOST
SIGNIFICANT ACTIVITY
OF MAN”
10. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is
activated by the learner.
- the process of learning is primarily controlled by the learner
and not by the teacher.
*People learn what they want to learn, they see what they want to
see, and hear what they want to hear.
*Very little learning takes place without personal involvement and
meaning on the part of the learner.
*It is wise to engage learners in an activity that is connected to their
life experiences.
11. 2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of
ideas.
- students more readily internalize and implement concepts
and ideas which are relevant to their needs and problems.
* It is necessary that the teacher relates lesson to the needs and
problems of the learner.
12. 3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.
- People become responsible when they have readily assumed
responsibility, they become independent when they have
experienced independent behavior, they become able when they
experience success, they begin to feel important when they are
important to somebody, they feel liked when somebody likes them.
*If EXPERIENCE is the best teacher, the teacher should make use of
EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING strategy. Experiential learning makes
use of direct as well as vicarious experiences.
13. COLLABORATIVE.
- cooperation fosters learning.
- two heads are better than one.
- interactive process appears to “scratch and kick”
peoples curiosity, potential and creativity.
- teachers should make use of cooperative and collaborative
approaches because these will teach students to live and learn
interdependently.
14. 5. LEARNING IS AN EVOLUTIONARY.
- behavioral changes require time and patience.
- change takes time.
- Rome was not built in one day.
- things in life that are worthwhile take time.
15. 6. LEARNING IS SOMETIMES A PAINFUL PROCESS.
- behavioral change often calls for giving up the old and
comfortable ways of believing, thinking and valuing.
- it is necessary for the teachers to make students realize that
learning is a difficult task which is accompanied by ample of
sacrifices, inconveniences and discomforts.
16. 7. ONE OF THE RICHEST RESOURCES FOR LEARNING IS THE LEARNER HIMSELF.
- each of the student is a reservoir of experiences, ideas,
feelings and attitudes which comprise a rich vein of material for
problem solving and learning.
- as a teacher, you must “midwife” the birth of ideas among
learners.
17. 8. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING IS EMOTIONAL AS WELL AS
INTELLECTUAL.
- learning is maximized when the feelings and thoughts of the
learners are working harmoniously. This is due to fact that man is
the “union of body and soul”. Man is a feeling being and a thinking
being.
18. LEARNING ARE HIGHLY UNIQUE AND
INDIVIDUAL.
- each of the learner has his own unique styles of learning and
solving problems.
- some personal styles of learning and problem solving are
highly effective, others are not as effective and still others are
ineffective.
- give considerations to multiple intelligences and learning
styles of the learners to properly address their needs for/of
learning
20. 1. PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT
- learning depends largely on the setting particularly including the
use of materials in which the process goes on with this scales of
application:
a. text book only
b. textbook with supplementary materials
c. non – academic and current materials (newspaper,
clippings, articles, magazines)
d. multisensory aids
e. demonstration and demonstration by experts
e. field experiences, personal, social and community
understanding
21. 2. PRINCIPLE OF FOCUS
- instruction must be organized about a focus or direction,
following these scales of application, and where focus is
established by:
a. page assignment in textbook
b. announced topic together with page or chapter references.
c. broad concept or problem to be solved or a skill to be
acquired to carry on understanding.
22. 3. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIALIZATION
- instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done,
with this scales of application and where social patterns are
characterized by:
a. submission
b. contribution
c. cooperation
23. 4. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALIZATION
- instruction must progress in terms of the learners own purposes,
aptitudes, abilities and experimental procedures, following these
scales of application and where individualization may be done
through:
a. differential performance in uniform task
b. homogeneous grouping
c. control plan
d. individual instruction
e. large units with optional related activities
f. individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to
the joint undertaking of the group of learners.
24. 5. PRINCIPLE OF SEQUENCE
- instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning
task who moves from:
a. from meaningless → emergence of meaning
b. from immediate → remote
c. from concrete → symbolic
d. from crude → discriminating
and where sequence comes through:
a. logical succession of blocks of blocks of contents
(lesson/courses)
b. kniting learning/ lessons/ course together by introduction,
previews, pretests, reviews
c. organized in terms of readiness
d. organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings
25. 6. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION
- learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of
all its aspects, following these scales of application:
a. evaluation or direct results only
b. evaluation related to objectives and processes
c. evaluation on total learning process and results
27. Instruction may be well-managed using any of these classifications
of students:
a. HOMOGENEOUS - learners are classified/grouped in terms of
similar elements such as age, abilities, interests, physical
characteristics etc.
b. HETEROGENEOUS – no definite bases for clustering or putting
learners together, could be on random sampling, alphabetized
family names, time of enrollment etc.
c. NON – GRADED – no fixed grade/level assignment of children.
They come to center of learning by small groups or individually
depending on their pacing in the accomplishment of tasks.
TEACHING MODEL - a term used by Bruce, Joyce to describe an over
– all approach or plan for instruction
Attributes of a teaching model:
a. a coherent theoretical framework
b. an orientation toward what student should learn.
c. specific teaching procedures and classroom structures.
28. DIFERENCE AMONG THE TERMS TECHNIQUE,
METHOD, STRATEGY, APPROACH AND
PRINCIPLES
PRINCIPLE
APPROACH
STRATEGY
METHOD
TECHNIQUE
29. TECHNIQUE – the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying
out the procedures of teaching.
- the teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages
of a method.
METHOD – synonymous to procedure
- the procedure employed to accomplish lesson objectives.
- a series of related and progressive acts performed by a
teacher and pupils to achieve the desired objectives of the lesson.
- the established way or procedure of guiding the mental
processes in mastering the subject matter.
- refers to a procedure employed to accomplish the lesson
objective.
- a well – planned step – by – step procedure that is directed
towards a desired learning outcomes.
30. STRATEGY – an over – all or general design on how the lesson will be
executed or delivered.
- a set of decisions on what learning activities to achieve an
objective
- can be a substitute to methodology
APPROACH – a set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing
with the nature of teaching and learning.
- one’s viewpoint toward teaching.
- procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess
better understanding and effective learning.
PRINCIPLE – means a general or fundamental law, doctrine or
assumption.
- a primary source or origin.
- rule or code of conduct.
31. PURPOSES OF METHODS
1. make learning more efficient
2. enable learner to think logically
3. facilitates smooth transition from one activity to another
4. serve as guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and
equipments.
5. approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste
of time and lapses.
6. make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion,
unnecessary delays and time wastage.
7. help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson.
8. add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and
students.
32. PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS
1. Must be based on sound principles, laws and theories of
learning.
2. Must assist the learners to define their purposes and motive.
3. Must originate from the learners’ past experiences.
4. Must suit individual differences, needs, interests and
developmental maturity.
5. Must bring the learners to the world of diverse learning
experiences.
6. Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically and
creatively.
7. Must be challenging
8. Must be flexible.
9. Must be consistent with the requirements of objectives.
10. Must be appropriate with the content.
33. 11. Must give to way to varied students’ participation.
12. Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful learning.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A METHOD
1. Learner’s ability – first and foremost consideration
based on the nature/characteristics, age, maturity,
abilities, etc.
2. Teacher’s ability – must be personally and
professionally qualified to teach
3. Objective – expected outcome of the lesson in terms of
knowledge/skills and attitudes.
4. Subject Matter – content to be taken so that the
desired outcome will be achieved.
5. Pre – requisite learning – students’ experiences that
can help facilitate acquisition of new knowledge, skills
34. and attitudes.
6. classroom set – up – must be inviting to students and conducive
to learning.
7. School facilities/equipments/technologies – the availability of
the needed equipments, technologies, tools for learning found in
the right places.
8. Time – allotment – specified target frame for chosen activities
properly distributed to the entire period.
9. Safety precautions – students should feel that they are safe and
out of danger in the school.
10. School climate – learner should feel the warmth of the teachers
and classmate.
36. “THERE ARE DULL TEACHERS. DULL TEXTBOOKS, DULL
FILMS, BUT NO DULL SUBJECTS”
Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content
1. Observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of
content:
a. Validity – teaching the content that we ought to teach according
to the national standards in the Basic Education Curriculum
- teaching the content in order to realize the goals and
objectives of the course as laid down in the basic education .
b. Significance – the content we teach should respond to the needs
and interest of the learners.
c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and
values (The three level approach in teaching – facts – cognitive,
concepts – psychomotor, values – affective domain)
37. d. Self – sufficiency – Content should cover the essentials of
the lesson and not “a mile – wide and an inch – deep”
e. Interest – the teacher considers the interest of the learners,
their developmental stages, and cultural and ethnic background.
f. Utility – refers to the usefulness/application of the content
to the life of the learner after it has been learned by the learner.
g. Feasibility – the content can be covered I the amount of
time available for instruction.
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is
facts.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and
affective elements.
39. GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION
AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Learning is an active process – actively engage learner in
learning activities to achieve optimum learning of the learners.
What I see, I remember,
What I hear, I forget
What I do, I understand
75% retention rate – is achieved through learning by doing
90 % retention rate – learning by teaching others
2. The more senses that are involve in learning, the more and better
the learning – Humans are intensively visual animals. The eyes
contain nearly 70% of the body’s receptors and send millions of
signals along the optic nerves to the visual processing centers of
the brain.
40. sight – 75%
hearing – 13%
touch – 6%
taste – 3%
smell – 3%
3. A non – threatening atmosphere enhances learning.
4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday
life.
6. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information – teaching should
reach the levels of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation
to hone our students’ thinking skills.
7. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than
teaching isolated bits of information.
8. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method
is the one that works, the one that yields results.
41. Factors to consider in the choice of teaching method:
a. Instructional objective
b. Nature of the subject matter
c. The learners
d. Teacher
e. School policies
43. A COMPARISON BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT APPROACHES
DIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH
1. Makes use of expository
strategies
2. aimed at mastery of
knowledge and skills
3. Teacher – oriented
4. Direct transmission of
information from teacher
5. Teacher – controlled
6. Highly structured
7. Content – oriented
8. Learner is passive,
receives ready
1. Makes use of exploratory
strategies
2. Aimed at generating
knowledge for experience
3. Learner – centered
4. Students search for
information with teacher’s
supervision
5. Learner – controlled
6. Flexibly organized
7. Experienced – oriented
8. Learner is active in search
44. METHOD OF TEACHING IN THE DIRECT/EXPOSITIVE
APPROACH
1. DEDUCTIVE METHOD – starts with generalization, principle or
rule that is then applied to specific cases.
Features: 1. allows for clear understanding of generalizations, rules,
formulas etc.
2. allows further development of generalizations, rules,
formulas etc.
When to Use:
1. to test a rule
2. answer questions or problems with reference to certain rules
or principles
3. to further develop generalization
45. Steps:
1. Statement of the Problem – teacher tells what the problem
which must be stimulating, realistic, relevant and within the
learner’s ability.
2. Statement of the Generalization – recalling/stating
generalizations or rules which may help solve the problem
3. Inference – looking for the principle/rule/generalization
that fits the problem.
4. Verification – trying out the best generalization, rule or
principle that establish validity of the probem using
references/materials.
2. Concept Teaching – is based on the assumption (Bruner 1984) that
concept formation begins at an early stage (9-12 months) where
initial activities of object – sorting and preference serve as bases
for concept learning.
46. BRUNER’S IDENTIFIED 3 DISTINCT MODES OF LEARNING:
a. Learning by doing called enactive learning
b. Learning by doing mental images called ICONIC MODE
c. Learning through series of abstract symbols called SYMBOLIC
MODE
MAY EITHER BE:
a. Concept Attainment – focuses on teaching pupils the concepts
that the teacher has selected for study and follows these steps:
1. introduce the concept by name
2. present examples
3. introduce non – examples
4. present a mixture of examples and non – examples and ask
questions which are the correct examples
5. ask pupils to define the concept
6. ask pupils to find another examples of the concept
47. b. Concept Formation Method – focuses on the process of concept
development/thinking skills development which follows the
following steps:
1. teachers provide stimulus in the form of a question or a problem
2. pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them
3. pupils label the categorized responses
Steps in Concept Teaching Method
1. Define the objectives of the lesson to get students ready to learn.
2. Giving of examples and non – examples which help strengthen
understanding.
3. Testing for the attainment of understanding
4. Analysis of students thinking and integration of learning through
further questioning and focused discussion.
5. Diagnostic testing reveals errors on misconception which calls
for a re – teaching.
48. 3. Direct Instruction / Showing Method – a teacher – centered
strategy that uses teacher explanation and modeling combined
with student practice and feedback to teach concept and skills. It
is designed to teach skills, concepts, principles and rules, with
emphasis on active teaching and high levels of student
involvement.
Features:
1. Widely applicable in different content areas
2. Establishes pattern of interaction between teacher and students
3. Assists students to learn procedural knowledge.
4. Promotes learning of declarative knowledge.
5. Focuses students’ attention on specific content/skill
6. Ensures mastery skills.
49. WHEN TO USE
- for teaching of concepts and skills.
Steps:
1. Introduction – reviewing prior learning with students, sharing
learning goals providing rationale for new content.
2. Presentation – explaining new concept or modeling the skill.
3. Guided practice with necessary feedback – providing students
necessary opportunities to practice new skill or categorize
examples of new concept.
4. Independent Practice – students practicing the skill or concept
learned for retention and transfer.
50. 4. LECTURE – DISCUSSION METHOD
- designed to help learner link new with prior learning and relate
the different parts of new learning to each other.
- designed to overcome the most important weaknesses of the
lecture method by strongly emphasizing learner involvement in
the learning process.
A. Lecture – designed to help students learn organized bodies of
knowledge.
- is a teacher – directed method designed to help learners
understand relationship in organized bodies of knowledge.
- as opposed to content – specific models that focus on individual
concepts, this model attempts to help students understand not
only concepts but how they are related.
- grounded in schema theory and David Ausubel’s concept of
meaningful verbal learning
51. FEATURES:
a. Applicable in different subject areas
b. Ensures clear understanding of information
c. Allows students participation
WHEN TO USE:
a. For conveying/disseminating important information which may
not be available to students or which may be needed to be
presented in a particular way.
b. For stimulating interest.
c. For guiding student reading
d. For explaining a difficult text
e. For aiding student to summarize and synthesize discussions
52. STEPS
1. Planning
a. identifying goals
b. diagnosing student background
c. structuring content
d. preparing advance organizers
2. Implementing
a. Introduction – describing the purpose of the lesson, sharing of
objectives and overview to help students see the organization of
the lesson.
b. Presentation – defining and explaining major ideas.
c. Comprehension Monitoring – determining whether or not
students understand concepts and ideas.
d. Integration – exploring interconnections between important
ideas.
53. 5. Review and Closure – summarizing the lecture
B. DISCUSSION – is an orderly process of face to face group
interaction in which students/pupils exchange ideas about an
issue for the purpose of answering a question, enhancing their
knowledge or understanding or making decision.
- It can be viewed as a bridge between direct instruction and
student – centered instruction.
5 Logical Conditions to Ensure that Exchange is called DISCUSSION
(Bridges, 1960)
1. People must talk to one another
2. People must listen to one another
3. People must respond to one another
4. People must be collectively share to put forward more than one
point of view.
5. People must the intention of developing their knowledge,
understanding or judgment of the issue under discussion.
54. FOR DISCUSSION TO BE SUCCESSFUL, PARTICIPANTS NEED CERTAIN:
1. Moral Disposition – being willing to listen to reason
- being willing to abide by rules that facilitate exchange of
ideas
2. Intellectual Disposition – concern for clarity in the expression of
ideas.
- concern that an appropriate variety of perspective is
considered by the group.
When to Use as a Teaching Strategy:
1. It can be used in any subject at any level from kinder to post
graduate study.
2. It can involve the whole class or it can be used with small groups.
3. When the teacher needs to facilitate any or all of the 4 types of
learning outcomes:
55. a. General subject mastery
b. Problem – solving ability
c. Moral development
d. Communication skills
4. When students need to be motivated to talk about the subject
inside and outside the classroom.
5. When teacher wants students to work together and share their
ideas by talking about them publicly (Cockburn and Ross, 1980).
56. ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Because it is an active learning process, it
is more likely to maintain students’ interests.
1. Without control over the discussion,
talkative students could easily dominate and
influence the group to accept their ideas.
2. Active involvement in learning motivates
students especially when they see that
others value their contributions and respect
their point of views.
2. If not guided well, there will be
opportunities for students to stay from the
topic and waste time.
3. More opportunities for practice and use of
the language as well as expression of ideas
and opinions among students
3. Some students may be reluctant to
participate in the discussion for fear of being
ridiculed for their ideas or opinions.
57. Using Discussion in Conjunction with other Teaching Strategies:
a. Direct Instruction – as part of a direct instruction lesson, a
discussion could be used to explore an issue for a short time (15
mins).
b. Group Work – interactions between students are an integral part
of small group learning, and this process can often be enhanced
by asking the students to follow a set of discussion rules.
c. Cooperative Learning – some forms off co-operative learning
(such as jigsaw) can be enhanced by structured discussion within
the learning groups.
d. Problem Solving – when you are using problem solving as a
teaching strategy, discussions can be used to help students
understand the nature of the problem, to help them generate
possible solutions and as a forum for comparing the relative
merits of various solutions to the problem.
58. Demonstration – a tell and show method
Steps:
I. Preparation
a. motivation
b. identify objectives/ problems/procedure
II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/Theory etc.
III. Demonstration of Concept Process by the Teacher
- students observe and take down notes
IV. Discussion of Student Observation
- answering problems
V. Verification
- justification
- conclusion
59. II. Indirect/Guided/Exploratory or Experimental Strategies
- the indirect approach is a student – centered approach or less
explicit teaching method. It involves the building of independent
learning and developing self-concept. It develops students to
become self – directed learners, crtical thinkers and problem
solvers.
Features:
a. Learner – centered, learners exercise initiative in the process.
b. Process of learning is perceived to be as important as the
outcome.
c. Learning is applied as it is acquired, not stored for future use.
d. The development of specific intellectual skills is better than
merely covering specified elements of subject matter.
When to Use:
a. When the teacher feels the need for students to develop self –
reliance and intellectual skills related to critical thinking and
problem solving.
60. 1. INQUIRY TEACHING
a. the process of answering questions and solving problems
based on facts and observation
b. strategy designed to teach students how to investigate
problems and questions with facts.
Features:
1. helps students find answers to their own questions in scientific
manner.
2. helps develop higher – order and critical thinking skills
3. promotes independent learning
When to Use:
1. when there are real life problems or questions that must be
answered through facts and observation
2. for topics requiring higher order thinking
61. Steps:
1. Presenting/Identifying the question or problem
Presenting or identifying a problem either by the teacher or
by the students, explaining or clarifying the problems by the
students to ensure clear understanding.
2. Forming hypothesis
Formulating intelligent guesses or tentative solutions and
generalizations.
3. Data Gathering
Gathering necessary facts, information or evidences related to
the problem
4. Data Analysis/Assessing Hypothesis
Closely studying/analyzing of the data gathered to prove or
disprove the hypotheses.
5. Generalizing – making generalization based on the careful
analysis of the data gathered.
62. Strategies for Inquiry Teaching
A. Interviews – may be used in all subjects
- interviews are used in gathering firsthand information from
individuals who have expertise on topic under study.
Steps:
1. Introduction – presenting a new or additional knowledge
or information, identifying interviews, and making plans including
questions to ask, procedure for recording, etc.
2. Development – conducting the interview as planned
3. Conclusion – summarizing data and report findings to solve
problems.
4. Evaluation – Assessing the success of the interview
conducted.
B. Field Trips – an out – of – the – classroom activity intended to
present concepts in the most realistic manner. It may be used
across levels in any subject area.
63. Steps:
1. Introduction – clarifying objectives of the activity, panning and
assigning tasks to be carried out and reviewing standards of
behavior.
2. Development – field trip proper, checking on students’ activities,
accomplishments and behaviors.
3. Conclusion – summarizing data and report findings, stating main
idea or other conclusions, sending letter of thanks.
4. Evaluation – assessing the finished activity
64. 2. INDUCTIVE METHOD
- a procedure through which one arrives at a fact, principle,
rule or generalization from some specific cases or examples.
Features:
1. Designed to help students develop higher order and critical
thinking while learning specific content at the same time.
2. Requires teacher’s questioning skill
3. Promotes high level of student involvement
4. Increase student motivation
When to Use
For formulating generalization, concept, rule, truth, principle,
formula or definition.
Steps:
1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of goals, stating of
aims
65. 2. Presentation – presentation of cases and examples.
3. Comparison and Abstraction – deducing common elements among
the cases or samples presented.
4. Stating of Generalization, rule, definition, principle, or formula
based on the common elements deduced from cases presented.
5. Application – applying the generalization or rule learned to other
problems within or beyond the classroom setting.
66. 3. PROBLEM SOLVING
- a purposeful activity aimed at removing difficulty or
perplexity through a process of reasoning.
Features:
1. Allows for students’ active involvement resulting in meaningful
experiences
2. Develops independence and higher level thinking skills.
3. Promotes open – mindedness and wise judgment.
When to Use:
- for lessons where learners find problems requiring
- for developing higher – level thinking skills
Steps:
1. Recognition and statement of the problem – with teacher’s
guidance and stimulus, the students define or recognize a
problem
67. 2. Statement of Hypothesis – students make temporary
answer/solution to the question or problem
3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested solution – with the teacher’s
guidance, students test hypotheses or data used in solving the
problem, formulate conclusions and summarize their findings.
4. Verification of accepted solutions – checking, verifying and
applying results to other problems.
68. 4. PROJECT METHOD
a purposeful, natural, significant constructive activity needing
both intellectual and physical solutions.
Project may be:
a. Physical or material – such as repairing a radio
b. Learning project – like composing a poem or short story
c. Intellectual or problem project – such as identifying ornamental
plants which can be medicinal
Features:
1. Develops students’ thinking and manipulative skills.
2. Develops creativity and resourcefulness, initiative, industry and
responsibility.
3. Allows students to express in their own way the concepts they
have learned.
4. Can enhance cooperation and sharing of ideas.
69. When to Use
1. For application of concepts
2. For discovering concepts
3. For developing creativity and thinking skills
4. For real life problems/situations
Steps
1. Purposing – determining the nature and goals of the project.
2. Planning – designing of strategies to be employed in carrying out
the project.
3. Executing – carrying out of activities as planned
4. Evaluating – displaying and judging of finished products.
70. LABORATORY METHOD OR RESEARCH METHOD
- deal with first hand experiences regarding materials or facts
obtained from investigation or experimentation.
Types:
1. Experimental – aims to train students in problem solving with
incidental acquisition of information and motor skills, emphasis
is on discovery, original procedure, and solution of problems.
2. Observational Type – the aim is on the acquisition of facts.
Activities would include visits to museums, exhibits or galleries,
watching documentaries, going on filed trips.
Features:
1. To promote information acquisition through observation,
experimental solutions to problems guided by reflective thinking
and acquisition of skill in manipulation.
2. Provides students opportunities to conduct or participate in
original research.
71. 3. Develops skill in using laboratory equipment and instruments.
4. Enhances higher order thinking skills.
Steps:
1. Orientation/Motivation – motivating and informing students on
the work to be done, why should it be done and giving precise
and explicit directions.
2. Work Period – students are allowed to work on their own either
individually or in groups with the teacher supervising.
3. Culminating Activities – organizing, presenting and exhibiting of
the completed work.
72. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
- an inductive teaching strategy designed to help students
reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis
testing hypothesis based on positive and negative examples
presented to them.
Features:
1. Encourages students to think freely.
2. Trains students to develop hypothesis.
3. Trains students to formulate definition or generalization.
4. Promotes students participation
When to Use?
1. For making hypothesis
2. For formulating hypothesis/definition
3. For development of critical thinking through hypothesis testing.
73. Steps:
1. Presenting of Examples – positive and negative examples are
presented and hypotheses are generated.
2. Analysis of hypotheses – hypotheses are analyzed in light of the
examples given.
3. Closure – examples are continuously analyzed to generate critical
characteristics and form a definition.
4. Application - additional examples are provided and analyzed in
terms of definition formed.
74. EMERGING MODELS OF TEACHING
A. PROBLEM – BASED INSTRUCTION
- the essence of problem – based instruction (PBI) consists of
presenting students with authentic and meaningful problem
situation that can serve as springboard for investigations and
inquiry.
- This model is a highly effective approach for teaching higher –
level thinking processes, helping students process information
already in their possession and assisting students to construct
their own knowledge about the social and physical world around
them. Contemporary approaches to problem based instruction
rest on cognitive psychology and constructivist perspectives
about learning.
Features:
1. Deriving question on problem – PBI organizes instruction around
questions and problems both socially and personally meaningful to
students.
75. - they address authentic real – life problems that evades simple
answers and for which competing solutions exist.
2. Interdisciplinary Focus – PBI lessons may be centered on a
particular subject but actual problem under investigation has been
chosen because its solution requires students to deliver into many
subjects.
3. Authentic Investigation – necessitates that students pursue
authentic investigation that seek real solution to real problems.
4. Production of Artifacts and exhibits - PBI requires students to
construct products in the form of artifacts and exhibits that explain
or represent their solutions.
- It could be a report, a video, a physical model or a computer
program.
76. B. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- develop in 1983 by HOWARD GARDNER
- proposes 9 different intelligences to accord for a broader range of
human potential in children and adults:
a. linguistic intelligences – word smart
b. logical – mathematical intelligence – number/reasoning
smart)
c. Spatial Intelligence – picture smart
d. Bodily Kinesthetic – music smart
e. Interpersonal Intelligence – People smart
f. Intrapersonal Intelligence – self smart
g. Naturalistic intelligence – nature smart
h. Existentialist Intelligence/Spiritualist Intelligence
77. Features
1. Building of different centers in the classroom
2. Equal attention should be given to individuals who show gifts in
other intelligences aside from linguistics and logical –
mathematical intelligences.
3. The MI theory proposed a major transformation in the way schools
are run and lessons are presented.
4. Suggests that teachers be trained to present lessons in a variety of
ways using:
- music - multimedia
- cooperative learning - field trips
- art activities - inner reflection
- role playing - and many more
MITA – Multiple intelligence Teaching Approach (for PBL)
Features:
1. Both starts with question/problem to generate curiosity
78. 2. Teacher functions as facilitator.
3. Learning outcomes are holistic, rather than narrowly based in one
discipline.
4. Assessments are authentic, performance based.
When Planning a Lesson (MI), Ask the Right Question
1. Linguistic: How can I use the spoken/written word?
2. Mathematical – How can I bring in numbers, calculations, logic,
classifications, critical thinking?
3. Spatial – How can I use visual aids, visualization, colon, art,
metaphor, or visual organizers?
4. Musical – How can I bring in music, environmental sounds or set
key points in a rhythm or melody?
5. Bodily Kinesthetic – How can I involve the whole body or hands
on experiences?
6. Interpersonal – How can I engage in peer or cross age sharing,
cooperative learning or large group simulation?
79. 7. Intrapersonal – How can I evoke personal feelings or memories or
give students choices?
8. Naturalistic – How can I develop love for nature?
80. C. CONSTRUCTIVISM (PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY)
- A perspective of teaching and learning in which a learner
constructs meaning from experiences and interaction with others.
- The teacher’s role is to provide meaningful relevant experiences
for students from which students construct their own meaning
(facilitation).
- A view of learning suggesting that learners develop their own
understanding of the topics they study instead of heaving it
delivered to them by others (most commonly teachers) in an
already organized form.
- Places the learner in the center of the learning process where
they play an active role in the process of constructing their own
understanding.
81. D. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY
- strategies used for recognizing one’s cognitive processes and
ways of thinking about how information is being processed.
- Metacognition is the awareness of and control of one’s own
mental processes.
- Nickerson (1988) characterized the role of metacogniton in
higher order and critical thinking in this way. “The fact that an
individual has some knowledge that would be useful in a given
situation does not guarantee that it will be accessed and applied in
that situation.”
To increase the likelihood that learners will apply their thinking
appropriately, they need to be aware of the thinking they’re doing.
(For example, when reading, the students need to learn to evaluate
their own decoding and comprehension, plan a sequence of
actions and regulate their reading behavior changing conditions.
82. 4 TYPES OF COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Strategy Definition Example
1. REHEARSAL Committing materials to memory by
repeating them.
Repeating a new phone
number.
2. ELABORATION Adding detail to new information and
creating associations.
Using mnemonic techniques
and adding details such as
relating new phone number
to one’s security number
3. ORGANIZATION Recognizing or picking out main ideas
from large bodies of information.
Outlining or highlighting
4. METACOGNITION Thinking about thinking and
monitoring cognitive processing
Deciding that the best
strategy for comprehending
a body of new text is to
create an outline of main
ideas.
83. E. COLLABORATION
- characterized by students working with one another either
in pairs or groups)
Steps:
1. Orient students to the problem
2. Organize students for study.
3. Assist independent and group investigation.
4. Develop and present artifacts and exhibits.
5. Analyze and evaluate the problem – solving process.
84. F. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
- a final theoretical perspective that provides intellectual
support from cooperative learning comes from theorists and
researchers who are interested in how individuals learn from
experience.
- Experience accounts for much of what people learn.
- Is based upon 3 assumptions:
a. that you learn best when you are personally involved
in the learning experience.
b. that knowledge has to be discovered by yourself if it
makes a difference in your behavior.
c. commitment to learning is highest when you are free
to set your own learning goals and actively pursue
them within a given framework.
85. G. COOPERATIVE LEARNING
- this model presents the sharpest contrast to direct instruction.
- can be used to teach rather complex academic materials and can
help teachers accomplish important social learning and human
relation goals.
- stems from both social learning theory and cognitive –
constructivist perspective of learning.
- classroom environment is characterized by a cooperative task
and incentive structures and by small group activity.
- cooperative goal structures exist when students can obtain their
goal only when other students with whom they are linked can
obtain their characteristics of cooperative learning lessons:
a. students work cooperatively in teams to master academic
materials.
86. b. teams are made up of high, average and low achievers
(coping learners).
c. whenever possible, teams include a racial, cultural and
sexual mix of students.
d. reward system are group oriented rather than individually
oriented.
Steps:
1. Go over objectives, present goals and establish learning set.
2. Present information to students with demo or text.
3. Organize students into learning teams.
4. Assist team works and study and group effort
5. Test over learning materials or groups present results of their
work.
6. Provide recognition to both individual and group efforts and
achievements.
87. Important Distinctive Features:
1. Students are not just required to do something as a team, they are
required to learn something as a team.
2. Because the team’s success depends on each student’s learning, it
is necessary for students to tutor one another rather than simply
share ideas and information with one another.
3. In some versions of cooperative learning where marks or grades
are allocated to students, there is opportunity for each member of
each team to succeed, because success is based on improvement
on past performance rather than on absolute scores.
Variations:
1. Students Teams Achievement Division (STAD - Slavin)
- simplest and most straight forward among the cooperative
learning approaches.
- referred to as student team learning
88. Steps:
1. Teacher presents new academic information to students each week
using verbal presentation or text.
2. Students in a class are divided into four or five member
heterogeneous learning teams.
3. Members in the team help each other learn by using a variety of
cooperative study methods, quizzing and scoring procedures.
2. Jigsaw (Aronson, Slavin)
- students are assigned to 5 or 6 members heterogeneous study
team.
- academic materials are presented to the students in text form.
- each student has the responsibility to learn a portion of the
material.
- members from different teams with the same topic (called the
expert group) meet to study and help each other learn their topic.
- then students return to home team and teach each other members
what they have learned.
89. 3. Group Investigation (Thelan Sharan)
- the most complex of the cooperative learning approaches and the
most difficult to implement.
- in contrast to STAD and Jigsaw, students are involved in planning
both the topics for study and how to proceed with their
investigation.
- teachers who use the GI divide their classes into 5 or 6 members
heterogeneous group.
- students select topics for study, pursue in depth investigation of
chosen sub – topic then prepare and present a report to the whole
class.
Steps of the GI Approach:
a. Topic selection
b. Cooperative planning
c. Implementation
d. Analysis and synthesis
90. e. Presentation of final product
f. Evaluation
4. Structural Approach (Kagen 1983)
- has much in common with other approaches, the structural
approach emphasizes the use of a particular structures designed
to influence students interaction patterns.
- call for students to work independently in small groups and are
characterized by cooperative rather than individual rewards.
- some structures have the goal of increasing student acquisition of
academic content (think – pair – share numbered heads together).
- others are designed to teach social and group skills (active
listening and time tokens).
5. Teams Games Tournaments (TGT) (De Vries and Slavin)
- similar to STAD in that the teacher presents information to
students and have them help one another learn. The difference lies
in the quizzes being replaced with tournaments and students
91. compete to gain points for their home team.TGT is suited to the
same subject matter and objectives as STAD.
6. Dyadic Cooperative Learning
- simplest form of cooperative learning and in many cases most
efficient form of group work.
- students interrupt in pairs after reading a section of the material.
They come to agreement to the important points and over all
meaning of each section. Afterwards, students quiz each other.
Lastly, teacher gives the whole class a test.
92. OVERVIEW OF SELECTED STRUCTURES IN COOPERATIVE
LEARNING
STRUCTURE BRIEF DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL
FUNCTION
A. TEAM BUILDING
1. Round robin Each student in turn shares something
with his or her team mates.
Expressing ideas or opinions,
creation of stories. Getting
acquainted with team mates.
B. CLASS BUILDING
1. Corners Each student moves to a corner of the
room representing a teacher –
determined alternative. Students
discuss within corners, then listen to
and paraphrase ideas from the other
corner.
Seeing other alternative
hypothesis, values, problem
solving approaches.
C. COMMUNICATION BUILDING
2. Match Mine Students attempt to match the
arrangement of object on a grid of
another student using oral
communication only.
Vocabulary development,
communication skills, role
taking ability
93. D. MASTERY
1. Numbered
Heads Together
The teacher asks a question, students consult
to make everyone knows the answer, then
one student is called upon to answer
Review, checking for
knowledge,
comprehension, tutoring
2. Color coded
Co – op - cards
Students memorized facts using a flash card
game. The game is structured so that there is
a maximum probability of success at each
step moving from short term to long term
memory. Scoring is based on improvement.
Memorizing facts,
helping, praising
3. Praise Check Students work in pairs of four. Within pairs
students alternate – one solves a problem
while the other coaches. After every two
problems, the pair checks to see if they have
the same answers as the other pair.
Practicing skills, helping,
praising
E. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
1. THREE - Step
Interview
Students interview each other in pairs, first
one way, then the other. Students each share
with the group information they learned in
the interview.
Sharing personal
information such as
hypotheses, reactions to
a poem, conclusions from
a unit.
94. 2. Think – Pair
Share
Students think to themselves on a topic
provided by the teacher; they pair up with
another student to discuss it; they then
share their thoughts with the class.
Generating and revising
hypotheses, inductive
reasoning, deductive
reasoning, application.
Participation, involvement.
3. Team Word
- Webbing
Students write simultaneously on a piece of
chart paper, drawing main concepts,
supporting elements, and bridges
representing the relation of ideas in a
concept.
Analysis of concepts into
components, understanding
multiple relations among
ideas, differentiating
concepts, Role-taking.
F. MULTIFUNCTIONAL
1. Roundtable Each student in turn writes one answer as a
paper and a pencil are passed around the
group. With simultaneous Roundtable more
than one pencil and paper are used at once.
Assessing prior knowledge,
practicing skills, recalling
information, creating
cooperative art. Team
building, participation of all.
2. Inside –
Outside Circle
Students stand in pairs in two concentric
circles. The inside circle face out, the
outside circle faces in. students use
flashcard or respond to teacher questions as
they rotate to each new partner.
Checking for understanding,
review, processing, helping.
Tutoring, sharing, meeting
classmates.
95. 3. Partners Students work in pairs to create or
master content. They consult with
partners from other teams. They then
share their products or understanding
with the other partner in their team.
Mastery and presentation
of new material, concept,
development. Presentation
and communication skills.
4. Jigsaw Each student on the team becomes an
“expert” on one topic by working with
members from the other teams assigned
the corresponding expert topic. Upon
returning to their teams, each one in turn
teaches the group, and the students are all
assessed on all aspects of the topic.
Acquisition and presentation
of new material, review,
informed debate.
Interdependence, status
equalization
5. Co – op – Co
– op
Students work in groups to produce a
particular group product to share with the
whole class. Each student makes a
particular contribution to the group.
Learning and sharing
complex material, often with
multiple sources, evaluation,
application, analysis,
synthesis
96. H. CONTENT – BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
- as defined by Brintos, Snow and Wesche, content – based
language instruction is the integration of content learning with
language teaching aims.
- it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter,
with the form and sequence of language presentation dictated by
content material.
Features:
1. The main instruction goal in this approach is to prepare the
students for the academic task they will encounter in school.
2. Students are provided with study skills and a familiarity with
scholarly discourse which they can transfer to other academic
endeavors.
3. It focuses not only on learning, but using the language as a medium
to learn mathematics, science, social science or other academic
subjects.
97. 4. Subject matter may consist of topics or themes selected for
students interest or need.
5. CBLI uses the content, learning objectives and activities from the
school curriculum as the vehicle for teaching language skills.
Teaching Methods and Strategies in CBLI
a. Cooperative Learning
b. Task – Based or Experiential Learning
c. Whole – Language Approach
98. I. INTEGRATIVE MODEL (TAB)
- grounded in cognitive views of learning.
- an inductive strategy designed to help students
1. develop a deep understanding of organized bodies of
knowledge topics that combine facts, concepts,
generalizations and the relationships among them.
2. develop critical thinking skills at the same time.
- closely related to the inductive model.
- planning lessons using integrative model includes identifying
clear goals and then preparing displays of data to help learners
reach the goals
- the data displays are commonly matrices, but can include graphs,
maps and charts in pictorial forms.
99. Steps:
1. describe, compare and search for patterns – teacher directs
students attention to the topics for study.
2. Explains similarities and differences – the point where students
are immersed in critical thinking.
3. Hypothesize outcomes for different conditions.
4. Generalize to form broad relationships – lesson is summarized and
comes to course as students derive one or more generalizations
that summarize the content.
100. J. GROUP COOPERATIVE LEARNING / EXPERIENTIAL
INVESTIGATION
- a model which enables students to inquire into a social problem
and observe themselves as inquirers while the teacher serves as
counselor – consultant and friendly critic.
K. INDEPENDENT LEARNING
providing a high level of cognitive and affective development,
independent learning is a kind of instructional process where
students proposes a study project, investigation, research, or
production of something which she or he will carry out almost
independently. The teacher’s role is to stimulate student
participation, advise and counsel on possible projects, grant
approval if appropriate, supervise students and evaluate
completed project.
101. L. SYNACTICS
- a teaching model designed to increase students’ creativity
through formulating analogies or metaphors. It is built on
assumptions that creativity, even though an essentially emotional
process can be learned and creativity can be fostered through
group activity.
102. INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES CONTINUUM FROM PASSIVE TO ACTIVE LEARNING
-Lecture
- Demonstration
- Questioning
- Discussion
- Guided Practice
- Independent Practice
- Grouping
- Role Playing
- Simulation
- Reflective Inquiry/
Thinking
104. LESSON PLAN
- is a day to day, step by step approach to learning. It sets forth the
proposal program or the instructional activities for the day.
Types:
a. BRIEF – an outline of teacher’s activities and is usually done by
master teachers
b. SEMI – DETAILED – all activities and teacher’s questions are
listed and usually done by neophyte teachers.
c. DETAILED – all activities, teacher’s questions and students’
expected answers are reflected and usually done by pre – service
teachers.
105. COMPONENTS OF THE LESSON PLAN
I. OBJECTIVES
- Cognitive
- Psychomotor
- Affective
II. SUBJECT MATTER
- Topics/Concepts
- Values Integrated
- References
- Materials
III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill – activity that will enable the students to automatize
response to pre – requisite skill of the new lesson.
106. 2. Review – activity that will refresh or renew previously
taught material.
3. Introduction – an activity that will set the purpose of the
day’s lesson.
4. Motivation – all activities that arouse the interest of the
learners.
2 types:
a. Intrinsic Motivation – sustaining self – interest to
learn.
- maintains self – curiosity and involvement in
the work by using surprise, doubt, novel as
well as familiar things.
b. Extrinsic Motivation – interest that is ignited by an
outward force like awards – monetary or
material things, scholarships, inspiration
from love ones.
107. B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson – real life situation or within the
experience of the learners are incorporated.
- teacher uses different activities as a vehicle to translate
the knowledge, values and skills into learning that could
be applied in their lives outside the school.
2. Discussion / Analysis – asking a series of affective or
cognitive questions about the lesson presented.
3. Abstraction / Generalization – the summary of the lesson.
- organizing significant information about the lesson
presented.
- completing graphic organizers like concept map, Venn
Diagram, fish bone, table, matrices and etc.
108. C. Closure / Application – relates the lesson to other situations in
the forms of:
- dramatization, simulation and play
- story telling
- oral reading
- construction and drawing
- written composition
- singing or reciting a poem
- test
- creative works
- solving problems
IV. Evaluation – determines whether the objectives are met and
achieved
- questioning
- summarizing
109. - comparing present and previous learning
- assigning work – project, research
- administering short quiz
- portfolios
- rubrics
- journals
V. Assignment
1. An activity done outside the classroom/at home to:
- reinforce or enrich the day’s lesson
- set the materials that students have to bring to school to
implement the next lesson.
2. The activity should help attain the day’s lesson objective. It
should be interesting and differentiated (with provision for
remedial, reinforcement and enrichment activities.)
110. DIFFERENCE AMONG AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
AIMS – are the most general objectives of the Philippine Education
System. They are broad and value – laden statements expressing
philosophical and ethical considerations that:
a. answer the needs and demands of the society especially
children and youth.
b. are formulated by experts as policy – making bodies, panels
and commissions.
c. are societal in nature or in a national level concern.
Example: Prepare students for a democratic citizenship.
GOALS – descriptions of the general objectives of school’s
curricula/courses that are expected to:
a. accomplish and organize learning experiences stressed on a
system – wide basis.
111. b. represent the entire school program prepared by
a professional associations or any local
educational agencies.
Example: Development of reading skills.
Understanding mathematical concepts.
Appreciation of art works.
OBJECTIVES – are the descriptions of what eventually take place in
the classroom.
a. They should be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, time bound)
b. These are used as a standard way of judging what has been
achieved or not achieved.
c. Their chief functions is to guide the teachers in making
decisions on what to cover, what to emphasize, what
content to select, and what learning experience, activity,
strategy or method best suit a certain learning plan.
112. d. Have 2 essential components namely behavior and content
but for assessment purposes, the objective should be written with
the following elements:
A – audience or the performer
B – behavior or the action verb specifying the learning
outcome
C – content of the subject matter
C – criterion or the degree of performance considered
sufficient to demonstrate mastery
Example: The student (audience) should distinguish (behavior) all
(criterion) objectives indicating learning outcomes (content) from
a set of objectives having both learning outcomes and learning
activities (condition).
2 types of Objectives:
1. Terminal – an important learning outcome that should be attained
at the end of the instruction.
113. 2. Enroute or enabling – the objective leading to the attainment of
the terminal objective.
SPECIFICATIONS OF OBJECTIVES
- it refers to the process of formulating objectives in a functional
form( i.e. complex to simple). It follows the following steps:
1. State the general unit objectives in terms of expected learning
outcomes (terminal objectives).
Dimensions of Learning Outcomes:
a. Knowledge – recall and remembering of information
essential to a discipline or subject area.
b. Reasoning – student ability to use knowledge to reason and
solve problems.
c. Skills – student ability to demonstrate achievement –
related skills such as reading aloud, interpersonal
interaction, speaking a second language and
performing psychomotor behaviors.
114. d. Products – student ability to create achievement – related
products such as written report, oral presentations,
projects, artworks.
e. Affective – (attitudes, values and appreciations) – moods
and connections or dispositions to act in a given
manner toward a person, thing, or event and the
sensitive awareness or perception of worth of an object
or event.
2. State terminal learning outcome in measurable learner
performance or product
- avoid terms like KNOW, UNDERSTAND, LEARN, THINK, and
APPRECIATE because they are not observable behaviors.
3. Obtain representative samples of essential and supportive pre-
requisites (enroute or enabling objectives).
115. Sequencing of Objectives
- the process of ordering or arranging the behavior of the
objectives in the same content in hierarchical order from simplest
to most complex.
The designers of objectives in many forms were finalized based
from:
1. TYLER – interprets philosophical and psychological concerns of
instructional objectives.
2. Gronlunds – distinguishes objectives between general and specific
outcomes.
3. Mager – relies on three major characteristics as behavioral,
conditional and with proficiency level in the formulation of
objectives.
4. Gagne – just as precise as Mager – defines types of learning
objectives as measurable and observable.
5. Bloom and his associates (1956) – developed the taxonomy of
cognitive objectives
116. 6. Krathwohl and Associates (1964) – developed the taxonomy of
affective objectives.
7. Simpson – developed the taxonomy of psychomotor objectives
Domains and Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
Taxonomy – classification systems of learning heirarchy.
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
1. Knowledge Recalling and remembering
previously learned material
including specific facts, events,
persons , dates, methods,
procedures concepts, principles
and theories
Name, match, list,
identify, recall,
define, label,
select, state
Identify equal
fractions.
2.
Comprehensi
on
Understanding and grasping the
meaning of something,
including translation from one
symbolic form to another
interpretation, explanation,
prediction, inferences, restating,
estimation and other uses that
Explain, convert,
estimate, describe,
interpret,
illustrate, infer,
represent
Change fractions to
lower/higher term
A. Cognitive – refers to the mental or thought complexity
117. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
3. Application Using abstract ideas, rules
or generalized methods in
novel and concrete
situations.
Demonstrate, use,
apply, solve, prepare,
implement, carry
out, construct, show
Add two to four
similar fractions.
4. Analysis Breaking down a
communication into a
constituent parts or
elements and understanding
the relationship among
different elements
Differentiate,
distinguish,
discriminate, relate,
compare, contrast,
classify, categorize
Analyzed word
problems involving
addition and
subtraction of similar
fractions
5. Synthesis Arranging and combining
elements and parts into
novel patterns or structures
Combine, assemble,
suggest, integrate,
create, plan, propose,
Design, conclude,
synthesize,
summarize
Solve non – routine
problems involving
fractions
6. Evaluation Judging the quality worth,
or value of something
according to established
criteria
Appraise, critique,
judge, weigh,
evaluate, verify,
confirm, defend,
decide, justify
Judge the
reasonableness of a
given solution to a
word problem
118. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
1.
Receiving/atte
nding
Develops an awareness ,
shows willingness to
receive, shows controlled
or selected attention,
Observe, listen,
attend, look, watch,
Pay attention to the
traits of a well – kept
house
2. Responding Shows willingness to
respond and finds some
initial level of satisfaction
in responding
Share, follow,
respond, comply,
conform, react
Keep the house clean
and orderly as told.
3. Valuing Shows the object, person or
situation has worth.
Something is perceived as
holding appositive value, a
commitment is made.
Admire, support,
praise, assist,
cooperate,
participate, conserve,
promote
Formulate a cleaning
schedule in the house
indicating tasks that
need cleaning daily,
weekly, and
occasionally.
4. Organization Brings together a complex
set of values and organizes
them in an ordered
relationship that is
harmonious and internally
consistent.
Propose, resolve,
balance, integrate,
organize
Keep the house clean
and orderly everyday
B. Affective Domain – reflects underlying emotions, feelings or values
119. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
5.Characterization Organized system of
values becomes a
person’s like outlook
and the basis for a
philosophy of life
Advocate, approve,
justify, influence,
commit, assert,
maintain
Maintain the
cleanliness and
orderliness of one’s
house and other
places at all times
c. Psychomotor – observable reflexive behavior, which involves cognitive and affective
components
1. Perception Uses the sense organ
to obtain cues that
guide motor activity;
(awareness), through
cue selection to
translation
Monitor, observe,
listen, watch
Observe how to
position the fingers
in the keyboard
2. Set Readiness to take a
particular action,
includes mental,
physical, and
emotional set.
Perception is an
important
prerequisite.
Show, prepare, set-
up, ready
Tell the order of the
alphabet in the
keyboard
120. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
3. Guided
Response
Concerned with the early stages
of learning a complex skill.
Includes imitation, trial and
error.
Imitate, follow,
copy, install,
repeat, practice
Practice proper
position in the
keyboard.
4. Mechanism Concerned with the habitual
responses that can be
performed with some
confidence and proficiency. Less
complex
Demonstrate,
manipulate,
collect, draw, use,
sketch, type,
write
Type at least 60
words per minute
using the correct
position of the
fingers.
5.
Complex/over
t response
Skillfully performs acts that
require complex movement
patterns, like the highly
coordinated motor activities.
Proficiency indicated by quick,
smooth and accurate
performance, requiring a
minimum of effort.
Operate, build,
construct, drive,
troubleshoot
Execute the print
formatting
operations.
6. Adaptation Concern with skills so well
learned that they are modified
to fit special requirement or to
meet problem situations.
Change, modify,
repair, adjust,
integrate
Use the desktop
publishing
applications in
creating income
121. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL
TERMS
EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
7. Origination Creates new
movement patterns
to fit a particular
situation or problem
Create, originate,
produce, develop,
compose
Creates one’s own
web page.
KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
SYNTHESIS
EVALUATION
Levels of Cognitive Domain
LOWEST
HIGHEST
124. Art of Questioning –
Questioning – key technique in teaching
- used for a variety of purposes.
Purposes of Questions:
1. Arouse interest and curiosity
2. Review content already learned
3. Stimulate learners to ask questions
4. Promote thought and the understanding of ideas
5. Change the mood/tempo, direction of the discussion
6. Encourage reflection and self – evaluation
7. Allow expression of feelings
Types of Questions:
1. According to thinking process involved:
a. low – level questions – focus on facts
- do not test level of understanding or problem solving skills
125. Ex. Who discovered the cell?
b. High level questions – go beyond memory and factual
information, more advance, stimulating and more challenging,
involves abstraction and point of view.
Ex. How did Robert Hooke discover the cell?
2. According to the type of answer required:
a. Convergent questions – tend to have one correct and best
answer.
- use to drill learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral skills
but not appropriate in eliciting thoughtful responses.
- usually start with what, who, where and when
- are referred to as low level questions
- are useful when applying the inductive approach and
requires short and specific information from the learners.
126. b. Divergent questions - open – ended and usually have many
appropriate answer.
- reasoning is supported by evidence and examples.
- associated with high level thinking processes and
encourage creative thinking and discovery learning.
- usually start with how and why, what or who
followed by why
3. According to the cognitive taxonomy:
1st level Knowledge memorize, recall, label, specify, define, list, cite etc
2nd level Comprehension Describe, discuss, explain, summarize, translate, etc
3rd level application Solve, employ, demonstrate, operate, experiment, etc.
4th level analysis Interpret, differentiate, compare, invent, develop, generalize
5th level synthesis Invent, develop, generalize
6th level evaluation Criticize, judge, interpret
127. 4. According to questions used by teachers during open discussion
a. eliciting questions – these are employed to:
1. encourage initial response
2. encourage more students to participate in the discussion
3. rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out
b. Probing question – seek to extend ideas, justify ideas, and clarify
ideas.
c. Closure – seeking questions – used to help students form
conclusions, solutions or plans for investigating problems.
Guidelines in Asking questions
1. wait time – the interval between asking a question and the
student response. This is a 3-4 seconds think – time.
2. prompting – uses hints and techniques to assist students to
come up with a response successfully.
128. 3. Redirection – involves asking of a single question for which there
are several answers.
4. Probing – a qualitative technique use d for the promotion of
effective thought and critical thinking
- provides the students a chance to support and defend a stand
or point of view.
5. Commenting and prompting – used to increase achievement and
motivation.
Tips on asking questions:
1. Ask questions that are:
- stimulating / thought provoking
- within students level of abilities
- relevant to students daily life situations
- sequential – a stepping stone to the next
- clear and easily understood
129. 2. Vary the length and difficulty of the question.
3. Have sufficient time for deliberation
4. Follow up incorrect answer
5. Call on volunteers or non – volunteers
6. Call on disruptive students
7. Move around the room for rapport / socialization
8. Encourage active participation
9. Phrase questions clearly.
10. Ask as many learner as possible to answer certain question.
130. APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES
OF THE LESSON
A. Introductory/Opening/Initiatory activities:
- starters and unfreezing activities to make students feel at ease
- used to motivate the students to participate and to set the tone
for the day.
- liken to “preparing the ground before sowing or planting”.
- activities given for students not just to enjoy or for the sake of
enjoyment but should have motivational function because they
are related to the day’s lesson.
1. KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned)
2. Video clips
3. Editorial from a current newspaper
4. Posing a scientific question that requires students to formulate
hypothesis or predict what’s going to happen
131. 5. Cartoon or comic strip
6. Game
7. Simulation
8. Puzzle, brain teaser
9. Mysterious Scenario
10. Song
11. Picture without a caption
12. Quotable quote
13. Anecdote
14. Compelling stories from history, literature related to the lesson
15. Current Events
16. Diagnostic Test
17. Skit, role playing
18. Voting
19. Ranking, ordering
132. 20. Devil’s advocate
21. Conflict story
22. Brainstorming
23. Buzz session
24. Question and answer
B. Developmental Activities
1. For data gathering
a. interview
b. library research
c. internet research
d. reading
e. lecture
f. inviting resource speakers
g. field trip
h. experiment
133. i. panel discussion
j. hands – on – learning
k. case study
2. For Organizing and Summarizing:
a. using graphic organizer
b. jingles, raps, song
c. verses
d. acrostic
e. power point presentation
3. For Application/Creative Activities
a. solving real world problems
b. performances and demonstrations
c. authentic projects
d. portfolios of students’ best work or work in progress
e. letters to the editor
134. f. power point presentation
g. brochures
h. writing and performing a song, rap or a musical
i. news report for local news program
j. television talk shows
k. mock debates and mock trials
l. mock job interviews
m. personal narratives
n. cartoons and comic strips
o. organizing a symposium
C. Concluding Activities:
a. finish and review the KWL
b. passport to leave
c. journal writing at the end of the period
d. Preview coming attractions
135. e. 3/2/1 countdown – 3 – facts I learned today, 2 – ways I will use
the information/skills I learned today, 1 – question I have
f. using analogies
g. completing unfinished sentences
h. synthesize or summarize the lesson
137. PRINCIPLES
1. All instructional materials are aids of instructions. They do not
replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional materials that best suits your
instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be
sure it is working well.
5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of
media which includes:
a. learn how to use the instructional material.
b. prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments
you may need.
c. provide a conducive environment
d. explain the objectives of the lesson
138. e. stressed what to be watched or listened to carefully
f. state what they are expected to do with the information they will
learn
g. prepare measure that can assess students’ experiences on the
use of the material based on the objectives.
139. VARIOUS FORMS OF MEDIA
1. AUDIO RECORDINGS – include tapes, recordings, and compact
discs used by teachers in connection with speech rehearsals,
drama, musical presentations, and radio and television
broadcasting
2. OVERHEAD TRANSPARANCY OR OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)
- transparency can show pictures, diagrams and sketches at a
time.
3. BULLETIN BOARD – usually stationary on a wall or it can be
movable which contains pictures, newspaper clippings, real
objects or drawings attached on its surface usually made from
cork or soft wall boards.
4. CHALKBOARD – a convenient writing area where illustrations can
instantly be drawn even during discussion.
140. 5. CHARTS - may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and
cut outs.
- maybe pre-prepared graphic devices or posters.
6. Mock – ups – is a replica of an object that may be larger or smaller
in scale which can be used to show the essential parts which are
made detachable.
7. REALIA – stands for the real things that are to be studied.
8. VIDEO TAPES OR FILMS – motion pictures clearly show movement
and sequence of events which usually motivates learners easily.
9. MODELS – scaled replicas of real objects which include globe car
models etc.
10. PICTURES – include flat, opaque and still pictures.
- “Pictures are worth ten thousand words”
11. BOOKS – present accurate facts and details that serve as
permanent sources of information