1. Teaching involves engaging students in activities to acquire knowledge, skills, and values through interaction between the teacher, student, content, and strategies. It is both a science and an art. 2. Key factors in the teaching-learning process are the teacher, student, content/strategies, and their interplay. The teacher selects appropriate content and strategies while the student's background and characteristics influence learning. 3. Effective instruction follows principles such as learning being student-centered and discovery-based, experience-driven, collaborative, evolutionary, and addressing individual differences through various intelligences and learning styles.

1. Transcript
 1. PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
 2. The process of engaging students in activities that will enable them to acquire the
knowledge, skills, as well as worthwhile values and attitudes.Stands for pedagogy, training
and nurturing  a process of interacting WHAT IS TEACHING
 3. A system of activities whereby all teachers' instructional tasks enable the students to
learn.Overall cluster of activities associated with a teacher, and including explaining,
questioning, demonstrating and motivating. An aggregate of organized strategies and
activities aimed at inducing learning 
 4. Is the greatest of the arts because the medium is the human mind and spirit.Is both
science and art; SCIENCE as it is based on psychological research that identifies “cause and
effect relationship” between teaching and learning; ART, as it shows how those relationships
are implemented in successful and artistic teaching. 
 5. Involves the interplay among such factors as the teacher, the learner, the teaching content
and strategies as this diagram shows:Involves values, experiences, insights, imagination
and appreciation- - - the “staff” that can not be easily observed and measured (Greene) 
 6. Adjusts content/activities strategies/ learning environment to the learners. Selects
appropriate content/ strategies and learning activities.  Prepares learning environment. 
Constructs well designed plan to achieve to objectives of the lesson.  A key factor in any
teaching – learning process. THE TEACHER
 7. The natural characteristics of learners are: age, maturity, grade level, health, abilities,
family background, experiences and motivation and his /her culture including values,
attitudes and traditions which influence the teaching – learning process to a very large
extent.Most important element of teaching. He is a union of a sentient body and a rational
soul. He is an embodied spirit. THE LEARNER
 8. The use of appropriate/effective methods and strategies of teaching to arrive at the
desired outcomes. The selection of appropriate instructional materials/technology to
facilitate learning.  The choice of content/ subject matter to be taught to achieve desired
objectives of the lesson. THE CONTENT/ TEACHING STRATEGIES
 9. “THE ABILITY TO LEARN IS THE MOST SIGNIFICANT ACTIVITY OF MAN”
 10. 1. Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the
learner. - the process of learning is primarily controlled by the learner and not by the teacher.
*People learn what they want to learn, they see what they want to see, and hear what they
want to hear. *Very little learning takes place without personal involvement and meaning on
the part of the learner. *It is wise to engage learners in an activity that is connected to their
life experiences.PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
 11. 2. Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas. - students
more readily internalize and implement concepts and ideas which are relevant to their needs
and problems. * It is necessary that the teacher relates lesson to the needs and problems of
the learner.
 12. 3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience. - People become
responsible when they have readily assumed responsibility, they become independent when
they have experienced independent behavior, they become able when they experience
success, they begin to feel important when they are important to somebody, they feel liked
when somebody likes them. *If EXPERIENCE is the best teacher, the teacher should make
use of EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING strategy. Experiential learning makes use of direct as
well as vicarious experiences.
 13. COLLABORATIVE. - cooperation fosters learning. - two heads are better than one. -
interactive process appears to “scratch and kick” peoples curiosity, potential and creativity. -

2. teachers should make use of cooperative and collaborative approaches because these will
teach students to live and learn interdependently.
 14. 5. LEARNING IS AN EVOLUTIONARY. - behavioral changes require time and patience.
- change takes time. - Rome was not built in one day. - things in life that are worthwhile take
time.
 15. PROCESS. - behavioral change often calls for giving up the old and comfortable ways of
believing, thinking and valuing. - it is necessary for the teachers to make students realize that
learning is a difficult task which is accompanied by ample of sacrifices, inconveniences and
discomforts.
 16. 7. ONE OF THE RICHEST RESOURCES FOR LEARNING IS THE LEARNER
HIMSELF. - each of the student is a reservoir of experiences, ideas, feelings and attitudes
which comprise a rich vein of material for problem solving and learning. - as a teacher, you
must “midwife” the birth of ideas among learners.
 17. 8. THE PROCESS OF LEARNING IS EMOTIONAL AS WELL AS INTELLECTUAL. -
learning is maximized when the feelings and thoughts of the learners are working
harmoniously. This is due to fact that man is the “union of body and soul”. Man is a feeling
being and a thinking being.
 18. LEARNING ARE HIGHLY UNIQUE AND INDIVIDUAL. - each of the learner has his own
unique styles of learning and solving problems. - some personal styles of learning and
problem solving are highly effective, others are not as effective and still others are
ineffective. - give considerations to multiple intelligences and learning styles of the learners
to properly address their needs for/of learning
 19. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING EFFECTIVE INSTRUCTION BY: LEUS, M.J
 20. 1. PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT - learning depends largely on the setting particularly
including the use of materials in which the process goes on with this scales of application: a.
text book only b. textbook with supplementary materials c. non – academic and current
materials (newspaper, clippings, articles, magazines) d. multisensory aids e. demonstration
and demonstration by experts e. field experiences, personal, social and community
understanding
 21. 2. PRINCIPLE OF FOCUS - instruction must be organized about a focus or direction,
following these scales of application, and where focus is established by: a. page assignment
in textbook b. announced topic together with page or chapter references. c. broad concept or
problem to be solved or a skill to be acquired to carry on understanding.
 22. 3. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIALIZATION - instruction depends upon the social setting in
which it is done, with this scales of application and where social patterns are characterized
by: a. submission b. contribution c. cooperation
 23. 4. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALIZATION - instruction must progress in terms of the
learners own purposes, aptitudes, abilities and experimental procedures, following these
scales of application and where individualization may be done through: a. differential
performance in uniform task b. homogeneous grouping c. control plan d. individual
instruction e. large units with optional related activities f. individual undertakings, stemming
from and contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of learners.
 24. 5. PRINCIPLE OF SEQUENCE - instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of
learning task who moves from: a. from meaningless emergence of meaning→ b. from
immediate remote→ c. from concrete symbolic→ d. from crude discriminating→ and where
sequence comes through: a. logical succession of blocks of blocks of contents
(lesson/courses) b. kniting learning/ lessons/ course together by introduction, previews,
pretests, reviews c. organized in terms of readiness d. organized in terms of lines of
emerging meanings
 25. 6. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION - learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating
appraisal of all its aspects, following these scales of application: a. evaluation or direct
results only b. evaluation related to objectives and processes c. evaluation on total learning
process and results

3.  26. MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
 27. Instruction may be well-managed using any of these classifications of students: a.
HOMOGENEOUS - learners are classified/grouped in terms of similar elements such as age,
abilities, interests, physical characteristics etc. b. HETEROGENEOUS – no definite bases for
clustering or putting learners together, could be on random sampling, alphabetized family
names, time of enrollment etc. c. NON – GRADED – no fixed grade/level assignment of
children. They come to center of learning by small groups or individually depending on their
pacing in the accomplishment of tasks. TEACHING MODEL - a term used by Bruce, Joyce to
describe an over – all approach or plan for instruction Attributes of a teaching model: a. a
coherent theoretical framework b. an orientation toward what student should learn. c. specific
teaching procedures and classroom structures.
 28. DIFERENCE AMONG THE TERMS TECHNIQUE, METHOD, STRATEGY, APPROACH
AND PRINCIPLES
 29. TECHNIQUE – the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedures of
teaching. - the teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages of a method.
METHOD – synonymous to procedure - the procedure employed to accomplish lesson
objectives. - a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils to
achieve the desired objectives of the lesson. - the established way or procedure of guiding
the mental processes in mastering the subject matter. - refers to a procedure employed to
accomplish the lesson objective. - a well – planned step – by – step procedure that is
directed towards a desired learning outcomes.
 30. STRATEGY – an over – all or general design on how the lesson will be executed or
delivered. - a set of decisions on what learning activities to achieve an objective - can be a
substitute to methodology APPROACH – a set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints
dealing with the nature of teaching and learning. - one’s viewpoint toward teaching. -
procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess better understanding and effective
learning. PRINCIPLE – means a general or fundamental law, doctrine or assumption. - a
primary source or origin. - rule or code of conduct.
 31. PURPOSES OF METHODS 1. make learning more efficient 2. enable learner to think
logically 3. facilitates smooth transition from one activity to another 4. serve as guide in
preparing all the needed materials, tasks and equipments. 5. approximate time to be allotted
for each activity to avoid waste of time and lapses. 6. make planning clear and precise, to
prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and time wastage. 7. help in planning for assessment
and evaluation of the lesson. 8. add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher
and students.
 32. PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS 1. Must be based on sound principles, laws
and theories of learning. 2. Must assist the learners to define their purposes and motive. 3.
Must originate from the learners’ past experiences. 4. Must suit individual differences, needs,
interests and developmental maturity. 5. Must bring the learners to the world of diverse
learning experiences. 6. Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically and
creatively. 7. Must be challenging 8. Must be flexible. 9. Must be consistent with the
requirements of objectives. 10. Must be appropriate with the content.
 33. 11. Must give to way to varied students’ participation. 12. Must consider to be undertaken
to ensure gainful learning. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A METHOD 1.
Learner’s ability – first and foremost consideration based on the nature/characteristics, age,
maturity, abilities, etc. 2. Teacher’s ability – must be personally and professionally qualified
to teach 3. Objective – expected outcome of the lesson in terms of knowledge/skills and
attitudes. 4. Subject Matter – content to be taken so that the desired outcome will be
achieved. 5. Pre – requisite learning – students’ experiences that can help facilitate
acquisition of new knowledge, skills
 34. and attitudes. 6. classroom set – up – must be inviting to students and conducive to
learning. 7. School facilities/equipments/technologies – the availability of the needed
equipments, technologies, tools for learning found in the right places. 8. Time – allotment –

4. specified target frame for chosen activities properly distributed to the entire period. 9. Safety
precautions – students should feel that they are safe and out of danger in the school. 10.
School climate – learner should feel the warmth of the teachers and classmate.
 35. SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF CONTENT
 36. “THERE ARE DULL TEACHERS. DULL TEXTBOOKS, DULL FILMS, BUT NO DULL
SUBJECTS” Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of Content 1. Observe the
following qualities in the selection and organization of content: a. Validity – teaching the
content that we ought to teach according to the national standards in the Basic Education
Curriculum - teaching the content in order to realize the goals and objectives of the course as
laid down in the basic education . b. Significance – the content we teach should respond to
the needs and interest of the learners. c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also
concepts and values (The three level approach in teaching – facts – cognitive, concepts –
psychomotor, values – affective domain)
 37. d. Self – sufficiency – Content should cover the essentials of the lesson and not “a mile –
wide and an inch – deep” e. Interest – the teacher considers the interest of the learners, their
developmental stages, and cultural and ethnic background. f. Utility – refers to the
usefulness/application of the content to the life of the learner after it has been learned by the
learner. g. Feasibility – the content can be covered I the amount of time available for
instruction. 2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts. 3.
Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements.
 38. SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES DIFFERENT FOLKS,
DIFFERENT STROKES
 39. GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Learning is an active process – actively engage learner in learning activities to achieve
optimum learning of the learners. What I see, I remember, What I hear, I forget What I do, I
understand 75% retention rate – is achieved through learning by doing 90 % retention rate –
learning by teaching others 2. The more senses that are involve in learning, the more and
better the learning – Humans are intensively visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70% of
the body’s receptors and send millions of signals along the optic nerves to the visual
processing centers of the brain.
 40. sight – 75% hearing – 13% touch – 6% taste – 3% smell – 3% 3. A non – threatening
atmosphere enhances learning. 4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life. 6. Good teaching
goes beyond recall of information – teaching should reach the levels of application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation to hone our students’ thinking skills. 7. An integrated teaching
approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of information. 8. There is no such
thing as best teaching method. The best method is the one that works, the one that yields
results.
 41. Factors to consider in the choice of teaching method: a. Instructional objective b. Nature
of the subject matter c. The learners d. Teacher e. School policies
 42. DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS A THOUSAND TEACHERS, A
THOUSAND METHODS
 43. A COMPARISON BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT APPROACHES DIRECT
APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH 1. Makes use of expository strategies 2. aimed at
mastery of knowledge and skills 3. Teacher – oriented 4. Direct transmission of information
from teacher 5. Teacher – controlled 6. Highly structured 7. Content – oriented 8. Learner is
passive, receives ready information 1. Makes use of exploratory strategies 2. Aimed at
generating knowledge for experience 3. Learner – centered 4. Students search for
information with teacher’s supervision 5. Learner – controlled 6. Flexibly organized 7.
Experienced – oriented 8. Learner is active in search of information
 44. METHOD OF TEACHING IN THE DIRECT/EXPOSITIVE APPROACH 1. DEDUCTIVE
METHOD – starts with generalization, principle or rule that is then applied to specific cases.
Features: 1. allows for clear understanding of generalizations, rules, formulas etc. 2. allows

5. further development of generalizations, rules, formulas etc. When to Use: 1. to test a rule 2.
answer questions or problems with reference to certain rules or principles 3. to further
develop generalization
 45. Steps: 1. Statement of the Problem – teacher tells what the problem which must be
stimulating, realistic, relevant and within the learner’s ability. 2. Statement of the
Generalization – recalling/stating generalizations or rules which may help solve the problem
3. Inference – looking for the principle/rule/generalization that fits the problem. 4. Verification
– trying out the best generalization, rule or principle that establish validity of the probem
using references/materials. 2. Concept Teaching – is based on the assumption (Bruner
1984) that concept formation begins at an early stage (9-12 months) where initial activities of
object – sorting and preference serve as bases for concept learning.
 46. BRUNER’S IDENTIFIED 3 DISTINCT MODES OF LEARNING: a. Learning by doing
called enactive learning b. Learning by doing mental images called ICONIC MODE c.
Learning through series of abstract symbols called SYMBOLIC MODE MAY EITHER BE: a.
Concept Attainment – focuses on teaching pupils the concepts that the teacher has selected
for study and follows these steps: 1. introduce the concept by name 2. present examples 3.
introduce non – examples 4. present a mixture of examples and non – examples and ask
questions which are the correct examples 5. ask pupils to define the concept 6. ask pupils to
find another examples of the concept
 47. b. Concept Formation Method – focuses on the process of concept development/thinking
skills development which follows the following steps: 1. teachers provide stimulus in the form
of a question or a problem 2. pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them 3.
pupils label the categorized responses Steps in Concept Teaching Method 1. Define the
objectives of the lesson to get students ready to learn. 2. Giving of examples and non –
examples which help strengthen understanding. 3. Testing for the attainment of
understanding 4. Analysis of students thinking and integration of learning through further
questioning and focused discussion. 5. Diagnostic testing reveals errors on misconception
which calls for a re – teaching.
 48. 3. Direct Instruction / Showing Method – a teacher – centered strategy that uses teacher
explanation and modeling combined with student practice and feedback to teach concept
and skills. It is designed to teach skills, concepts, principles and rules, with emphasis on
active teaching and high levels of student involvement. Features: 1. Widely applicable in
different content areas 2. Establishes pattern of interaction between teacher and students 3.
Assists students to learn procedural knowledge. 4. Promotes learning of declarative
knowledge. 5. Focuses students’ attention on specific content/skill 6. Ensures mastery skills.
 49. WHEN TO USE - for teaching of concepts and skills. Steps: 1. Introduction – reviewing
prior learning with students, sharing learning goals providing rationale for new content. 2.
Presentation – explaining new concept or modeling the skill. 3. Guided practice with
necessary feedback – providing students necessary opportunities to practice new skill or
categorize examples of new concept. 4. Independent Practice – students practicing the skill
or concept learned for retention and transfer.
 50. 4. LECTURE – DISCUSSION METHOD - designed to help learner link new with prior
learning and relate the different parts of new learning to each other. - designed to overcome
the most important weaknesses of the lecture method by strongly emphasizing learner
involvement in the learning process. A. Lecture – designed to help students learn organized
bodies of knowledge. - is a teacher – directed method designed to help learners understand
relationship in organized bodies of knowledge. - as opposed to content – specific models that
focus on individual concepts, this model attempts to help students understand not only
concepts but how they are related. - grounded in schema theory and David Ausubel’s
concept of meaningful verbal learning
 51. FEATURES: a. Applicable in different subject areas b. Ensures clear understanding of
information c. Allows students participation WHEN TO USE: a. For conveying/disseminating
important information which may not be available to students or which may be needed to be

6. presented in a particular way. b. For stimulating interest. c. For guiding student reading d.
For explaining a difficult text e. For aiding student to summarize and synthesize discussions
 52. STEPS 1. Planning a. identifying goals b. diagnosing student background c. structuring
content d. preparing advance organizers 2. Implementing a. Introduction – describing the
purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives and overview to help students see the
organization of the lesson. b. Presentation – defining and explaining major ideas. c.
Comprehension Monitoring – determining whether or not students understand concepts and
ideas. d. Integration – exploring interconnections between important ideas.
 53. 5. Review and Closure – summarizing the lecture B. DISCUSSION – is an orderly
process of face to face group interaction in which students/pupils exchange ideas about an
issue for the purpose of answering a question, enhancing their knowledge or understanding
or making decision. - It can be viewed as a bridge between direct instruction and student –
centered instruction. 5 Logical Conditions to Ensure that Exchange is called DISCUSSION
(Bridges, 1960) 1. People must talk to one another 2. People must listen to one another 3.
People must respond to one another 4. People must be collectively share to put forward
more than one point of view. 5. People must the intention of developing their knowledge,
understanding or judgment of the issue under discussion.
 54. FOR DISCUSSION TO BE SUCCESSFUL, PARTICIPANTS NEED CERTAIN: 1. Moral
Disposition – being willing to listen to reason - being willing to abide by rules that facilitate
exchange of ideas 2. Intellectual Disposition – concern for clarity in the expression of ideas. -
concern that an appropriate variety of perspective is considered by the group. When to Use
as a Teaching Strategy: 1. It can be used in any subject at any level from kinder to post
graduate study. 2. It can involve the whole class or it can be used with small groups. 3.
When the teacher needs to facilitate any or all of the 4 types of learning outcomes:
 55. a. General subject mastery b. Problem – solving ability c. Moral development d.
Communication skills 4. When students need to be motivated to talk about the subject inside
and outside the classroom. 5. When teacher wants students to work together and share their
ideas by talking about them publicly (Cockburn and Ross, 1980).
 56. ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS 1. Because it is an active learning process, it is more likely
to maintain students’ interests. 1. Without control over the discussion, talkative students
could easily dominate and influence the group to accept their ideas. 2. Active involvement in
learning motivates students especially when they see that others value their contributions
and respect their point of views. 2. If not guided well, there will be opportunities for students
to stay from the topic and waste time. 3. More opportunities for practice and use of the
language as well as expression of ideas and opinions among students 3. Some students
may be reluctant to participate in the discussion for fear of being ridiculed for their ideas or
opinions.
 57. Using Discussion in Conjunction with other Teaching Strategies: a. Direct Instruction – as
part of a direct instruction lesson, a discussion could be used to explore an issue for a short
time (15 mins). b. Group Work – interactions between students are an integral part of small
group learning, and this process can often be enhanced by asking the students to follow a
set of discussion rules. c. Cooperative Learning – some forms off co-operative learning (such
as jigsaw) can be enhanced by structured discussion within the learning groups. d. Problem
Solving – when you are using problem solving as a teaching strategy, discussions can be
used to help students understand the nature of the problem, to help them generate possible
solutions and as a forum for comparing the relative merits of various solutions to the
problem.
 58. Demonstration – a tell and show method Steps: I. Preparation a. motivation b. identify
objectives/ problems/procedure II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/Theory etc.
III. Demonstration of Concept Process by the Teacher - students observe and take down
notes IV. Discussion of Student Observation - answering problems V. Verification -
justification - conclusion

7.  59. II. Indirect/Guided/Exploratory or Experimental Strategies - the indirect approach is a
student – centered approach or less explicit teaching method. It involves the building of
independent learning and developing self-concept. It develops students to become self –
directed learners, crtical thinkers and problem solvers. Features: a. Learner – centered,
learners exercise initiative in the process. b. Process of learning is perceived to be as
important as the outcome. c. Learning is applied as it is acquired, not stored for future use. d.
The development of specific intellectual skills is better than merely covering specified
elements of subject matter. When to Use: a. When the teacher feels the need for students to
develop self – reliance and intellectual skills related to critical thinking and problem solving.
 60. 1. INQUIRY TEACHING a. the process of answering questions and solving problems
based on facts and observation b. strategy designed to teach students how to investigate
problems and questions with facts. Features: 1. helps students find answers to their own
questions in scientific manner. 2. helps develop higher – order and critical thinking skills 3.
promotes independent learning When to Use: 1. when there are real life problems or
questions that must be answered through facts and observation 2. for topics requiring higher
order thinking
 61. Steps: 1. Presenting/Identifying the question or problem Presenting or identifying a
problem either by the teacher or by the students, explaining or clarifying the problems by the
students to ensure clear understanding. 2. Forming hypothesis Formulating intelligent
guesses or tentative solutions and generalizations. 3. Data Gathering Gathering necessary
facts, information or evidences related to the problem 4. Data Analysis/Assessing Hypothesis
Closely studying/analyzing of the data gathered to prove or disprove the hypotheses. 5.
Generalizing – making generalization based on the careful analysis of the data gathered.
 62. Strategies for Inquiry Teaching A. Interviews – may be used in all subjects - interviews
are used in gathering firsthand information from individuals who have expertise on topic
under study. Steps: 1. Introduction – presenting a new or additional knowledge or
information, identifying interviews, and making plans including questions to ask, procedure
for recording, etc. 2. Development – conducting the interview as planned 3. Conclusion –
summarizing data and report findings to solve problems. 4. Evaluation – Assessing the
success of the interview conducted. B. Field Trips – an out – of – the – classroom activity
intended to present concepts in the most realistic manner. It may be used across levels in
any subject area.
 63. Steps: 1. Introduction – clarifying objectives of the activity, panning and assigning tasks
to be carried out and reviewing standards of behavior. 2. Development – field trip proper,
checking on students’ activities, accomplishments and behaviors. 3. Conclusion –
summarizing data and report findings, stating main idea or other conclusions, sending letter
of thanks. 4. Evaluation – assessing the finished activity
 64. 2. INDUCTIVE METHOD - a procedure through which one arrives at a fact, principle, rule
or generalization from some specific cases or examples. Features: 1. Designed to help
students develop higher order and critical thinking while learning specific content at the same
time. 2. Requires teacher’s questioning skill 3. Promotes high level of student involvement 4.
Increase student motivation When to Use For formulating generalization, concept, rule, truth,
principle, formula or definition. Steps: 1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of goals,
stating of aims
 65. 2. Presentation – presentation of cases and examples. 3. Comparison and Abstraction –
deducing common elements among the cases or samples presented. 4. Stating of
Generalization, rule, definition, principle, or formula based on the common elements
deduced from cases presented. 5. Application – applying the generalization or rule learned to
other problems within or beyond the classroom setting.
 66. 3. PROBLEM SOLVING - a purposeful activity aimed at removing difficulty or perplexity
through a process of reasoning. Features: 1. Allows for students’ active involvement resulting
in meaningful experiences 2. Develops independence and higher level thinking skills. 3.
Promotes open – mindedness and wise judgment. When to Use: - for lessons where learners

8. find problems requiring - for developing higher – level thinking skills Steps: 1. Recognition
and statement of the problem – with teacher’s guidance and stimulus, the students define or
recognize a problem
 67. 2. Statement of Hypothesis – students make temporary answer/solution to the question
or problem 3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested solution – with the teacher’s guidance,
students test hypotheses or data used in solving the problem, formulate conclusions and
summarize their findings. 4. Verification of accepted solutions – checking, verifying and
applying results to other problems.
 68. 4. PROJECT METHOD a purposeful, natural, significant constructive activity needing
both intellectual and physical solutions. Project may be: a. Physical or material – such as
repairing a radio b. Learning project – like composing a poem or short story c. Intellectual or
problem project – such as identifying ornamental plants which can be medicinal Features: 1.
Develops students’ thinking and manipulative skills. 2. Develops creativity and
resourcefulness, initiative, industry and responsibility. 3. Allows students to express in their
own way the concepts they have learned. 4. Can enhance cooperation and sharing of ideas.
 69. When to Use 1. For application of concepts 2. For discovering concepts 3. For
developing creativity and thinking skills 4. For real life problems/situations Steps 1.
Purposing – determining the nature and goals of the project. 2. Planning – designing of
strategies to be employed in carrying out the project. 3. Executing – carrying out of activities
as planned 4. Evaluating – displaying and judging of finished products.
 70. LABORATORY METHOD OR RESEARCH METHOD - deal with first hand experiences
regarding materials or facts obtained from investigation or experimentation. Types: 1.
Experimental – aims to train students in problem solving with incidental acquisition of
information and motor skills, emphasis is on discovery, original procedure, and solution of
problems. 2. Observational Type – the aim is on the acquisition of facts. Activities would
include visits to museums, exhibits or galleries, watching documentaries, going on filed trips.
Features: 1. To promote information acquisition through observation, experimental solutions
to problems guided by reflective thinking and acquisition of skill in manipulation. 2. Provides
students opportunities to conduct or participate in original research.
 71. 3. Develops skill in using laboratory equipment and instruments. 4. Enhances higher
order thinking skills. Steps: 1. Orientation/Motivation – motivating and informing students on
the work to be done, why should it be done and giving precise and explicit directions. 2.
Work Period – students are allowed to work on their own either individually or in groups with
the teacher supervising. 3. Culminating Activities – organizing, presenting and exhibiting of
the completed work.
 72. CONCEPT ATTAINMENT - an inductive teaching strategy designed to help students
reinforce their understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis testing hypothesis based
on positive and negative examples presented to them. Features: 1. Encourages students to
think freely. 2. Trains students to develop hypothesis. 3. Trains students to formulate
definition or generalization. 4. Promotes students participation When to Use? 1. For making
hypothesis 2. For formulating hypothesis/definition 3. For development of critical thinking
through hypothesis testing.
 73. Steps: 1. Presenting of Examples – positive and negative examples are presented and
hypotheses are generated. 2. Analysis of hypotheses – hypotheses are analyzed in light of
the examples given. 3. Closure – examples are continuously analyzed to generate critical
characteristics and form a definition. 4. Application - additional examples are provided and
analyzed in terms of definition formed.
 74. EMERGING MODELS OF TEACHING A. PROBLEM – BASED INSTRUCTION - the
essence of problem – based instruction (PBI) consists of presenting students with authentic
and meaningful problem situation that can serve as springboard for investigations and
inquiry. - This model is a highly effective approach for teaching higher – level thinking
processes, helping students process information already in their possession and assisting
students to construct their own knowledge about the social and physical world around them.

9. Contemporary approaches to problem based instruction rest on cognitive psychology and
constructivist perspectives about learning. Features: 1. Deriving question on problem – PBI
organizes instruction around questions and problems both socially and personally
meaningful to students.
 75. - they address authentic real – life problems that evades simple answers and for which
competing solutions exist. 2. Interdisciplinary Focus – PBI lessons may be centered on a
particular subject but actual problem under investigation has been chosen because its
solution requires students to deliver into many subjects. 3. Authentic Investigation –
necessitates that students pursue authentic investigation that seek real solution to real
problems. 4. Production of Artifacts and exhibits - PBI requires students to construct
products in the form of artifacts and exhibits that explain or represent their solutions. - It
could be a report, a video, a physical model or a computer program.
 76. B. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES - develop in 1983 by HOWARD GARDNER - proposes
9 different intelligences to accord for a broader range of human potential in children and
adults: a. linguistic intelligences – word smart b. logical – mathematical intelligence –
number/reasoning smart) c. Spatial Intelligence – picture smart d. Bodily Kinesthetic – music
smart e. Interpersonal Intelligence – People smart f. Intrapersonal Intelligence – self smart g.
Naturalistic intelligence – nature smart h. Existentialist Intelligence/Spiritualist Intelligence
 77. Features 1. Building of different centers in the classroom 2. Equal attention should be
given to individuals who show gifts in other intelligences aside from linguistics and logical –
mathematical intelligences. 3. The MI theory proposed a major transformation in the way
schools are run and lessons are presented. 4. Suggests that teachers be trained to present
lessons in a variety of ways using: - music - multimedia - cooperative learning - field trips -
art activities - inner reflection - role playing - and many more MITA – Multiple intelligence
Teaching Approach (for PBL) Features: 1. Both starts with question/problem to generate
curiosity
 78. 2. Teacher functions as facilitator. 3. Learning outcomes are holistic, rather than narrowly
based in one discipline. 4. Assessments are authentic, performance based. When Planning a
Lesson (MI), Ask the Right Question 1. Linguistic: How can I use the spoken/written word? 2.
Mathematical – How can I bring in numbers, calculations, logic, classifications, critical
thinking? 3. Spatial – How can I use visual aids, visualization, colon, art, metaphor, or visual
organizers? 4. Musical – How can I bring in music, environmental sounds or set key points in
a rhythm or melody? 5. Bodily Kinesthetic – How can I involve the whole body or hands on
experiences? 6. Interpersonal – How can I engage in peer or cross age sharing, cooperative
learning or large group simulation?
 79. 7. Intrapersonal – How can I evoke personal feelings or memories or give students
choices? 8. Naturalistic – How can I develop love for nature?
 80. C. CONSTRUCTIVISM (PIAGET AND VYGOTSKY) - A perspective of teaching and
learning in which a learner constructs meaning from experiences and interaction with others.
- The teacher’s role is to provide meaningful relevant experiences for students from which
students construct their own meaning (facilitation). - A view of learning suggesting that
learners develop their own understanding of the topics they study instead of heaving it
delivered to them by others (most commonly teachers) in an already organized form. -
Places the learner in the center of the learning process where they play an active role in the
process of constructing their own understanding.
 81. D. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY - strategies used for recognizing one’s cognitive
processes and ways of thinking about how information is being processed. - Metacognition is
the awareness of and control of one’s own mental processes. - Nickerson (1988)
characterized the role of metacogniton in higher order and critical thinking in this way. “The
fact that an individual has some knowledge that would be useful in a given situation does not
guarantee that it will be accessed and applied in that situation.” To increase the likelihood
that learners will apply their thinking appropriately, they need to be aware of the thinking
they’re doing. (For example, when reading, the students need to learn to evaluate their own

10. decoding and comprehension, plan a sequence of actions and regulate their reading
behavior changing conditions.
 82. 4 TYPES OF COGNITIVE STRATEGIES Strategy Definition Example 1. REHEARSAL
Committing materials to memory by repeating them. Repeating a new phone number. 2.
ELABORATION Adding detail to new information and creating associations. Using
mnemonic techniques and adding details such as relating new phone number to one’s
security number 3. ORGANIZATION Recognizing or picking out main ideas from large
bodies of information. Outlining or highlighting 4. METACOGNITION Thinking about thinking
and monitoring cognitive processing Deciding that the best strategy for comprehending a
body of new text is to create an outline of main ideas.
 83. E. COLLABORATION - characterized by students working with one another either in
pairs or groups) Steps: 1. Orient students to the problem 2. Organize students for study. 3.
Assist independent and group investigation. 4. Develop and present artifacts and exhibits. 5.
Analyze and evaluate the problem – solving process.
 84. F. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING - a final theoretical perspective that provides intellectual
support from cooperative learning comes from theorists and researchers who are interested
in how individuals learn from experience. - Experience accounts for much of what people
learn. - Is based upon 3 assumptions: a. that you learn best when you are personally
involved in the learning experience. b. that knowledge has to be discovered by yourself if it
makes a difference in your behavior. c. commitment to learning is highest when you are free
to set your own learning goals and actively pursue
 85. G. COOPERATIVE LEARNING - this model presents the sharpest contrast to direct
instruction. - can be used to teach rather complex academic materials and can help teachers
accomplish important social learning and human relation goals. - stems from both social
learning theory and cognitive – constructivist perspective of learning. - classroom
environment is characterized by a cooperative task and incentive structures and by small
group activity. - cooperative goal structures exist when students can obtain their goal only
when other students with whom they are linked can obtain their characteristics of cooperative
learning lessons: a. students work cooperatively in teams to master academic materials.
 86. b. teams are made up of high, average and low achievers (coping learners). c. whenever
possible, teams include a racial, cultural and sexual mix of students. d. reward system are
group oriented rather than individually oriented. Steps: 1. Go over objectives, present goals
and establish learning set. 2. Present information to students with demo or text. 3. Organize
students into learning teams. 4. Assist team works and study and group effort 5. Test over
learning materials or groups present results of their work. 6. Provide recognition to both
individual and group efforts and achievements.
 87. Important Distinctive Features: 1. Students are not just required to do something as a
team, they are required to learn something as a team. 2. Because the team’s success
depends on each student’s learning, it is necessary for students to tutor one another rather
than simply share ideas and information with one another. 3. In some versions of cooperative
learning where marks or grades are allocated to students, there is opportunity for each
member of each team to succeed, because success is based on improvement on past
performance rather than on absolute scores. Variations: 1. Students Teams Achievement
Division (STAD - Slavin) - simplest and most straight forward among the cooperative learning
approaches. - referred to as student team learning
 88. Steps: 1. Teacher presents newacademic information to students each week using
verbal presentation or text. 2. Students in a class are divided into four or five member
heterogeneous learning teams. 3. Members in the team help each other learn by using a
variety of cooperative study methods, quizzing and scoring procedures. 2. Jigsaw (Aronson,
Slavin) - students are assigned to 5 or 6 members heterogeneous study team. - academic
materials are presented to the students in text form. - each student has the responsibility to
learn a portion of the material. - members from different teams with the same topic (called

11. the expert group) meet to study and help each other learn their topic. - then students return
to home team and teach each other members what they have learned.
 89. 3. Group Investigation (Thelan Sharan) - the most complex of the cooperative learning
approaches and the most difficult to implement. - in contrast to STAD and Jigsaw, students
are involved in planning both the topics for study and how to proceed with their investigation.
- teachers who use the GI divide their classes into 5 or 6 members heterogeneous group. -
students select topics for study, pursue in depth investigation of chosen sub – topic then
prepare and present a report to the whole class. Steps of the GI Approach: a. Topic selection
b. Cooperative planning c. Implementation d. Analysis and synthesis
 90. e. Presentation of final product f. Evaluation 4. Structural Approach (Kagen 1983) - has
much in common with other approaches, the structural approach emphasizes the use of a
particular structures designed to influence students interaction patterns. - call for students to
work independently in small groups and are characterized by cooperative rather than
individual rewards. - some structures have the goal of increasing student acquisition of
academic content (think – pair – share numbered heads together). - others are designed to
teach social and group skills (active listening and time tokens). 5. Teams Games
Tournaments (TGT) (De Vries and Slavin) - similar to STAD in that the teacher presents
information to students and have them help one another learn. The difference lies in the
quizzes being replaced with tournaments and students
 91. compete to gain points for their home team.TGT is suited to the same subject matter and
objectives as STAD. 6. Dyadic Cooperative Learning - simplest form of cooperative learning
and in many cases most efficient form of group work. - students interrupt in pairs after
reading a section of the material. They come to agreement to the important points and over
all meaning of each section. Afterwards, students quiz each other. Lastly, teacher gives the
whole class a test.
 92. OVERVIEW OF SELECTED STRUCTURES IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING
STRUCTURE BRIEF DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL FUNCTION A. TEAM
BUILDING 1. Round robin Each student in turn shares something with his or her team
mates. Expressing ideas or opinions, creation of stories. Getting acquainted with team
mates. B. CLASS BUILDING 1. Corners Each student moves to a corner of the room
representing a teacher – determined alternative. Students discuss within corners, then listen
to and paraphrase ideas from the other corner. Seeing other alternative hypothesis, values,
problem solving approaches. C. COMMUNICATION BUILDING 2. Match Mine Students
attempt to match the arrangement of object on a grid of another student using oral
communication only. Vocabulary development, communication skills, role taking ability
 93. D. MASTERY 1. Numbered Heads Together The teacher asks a question, students
consult to make everyone knows the answer, then one student is called upon to answer
Review, checking for knowledge, comprehension, tutoring 2. Color coded Co – op - cards
Students memorized facts using a flash card game. The game is structured so that there is a
maximum probability of success at each step moving from short term to long term memory.
Scoring is based on improvement. Memorizing facts, helping, praising 3. Praise Check
Students work in pairs of four. Within pairs students alternate – one solves a problem while
the other coaches. After every two problems, the pair checks to see if they have the same
answers as the other pair. Practicing skills, helping, praising E. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
1. THREE - Step Interview Students interview each other in pairs, first one way, then the
other. Students each share with the group information they learned in the interview. Sharing
personal information such as hypotheses, reactions to a poem, conclusions from a unit.
 94. 2. Think – Pair Share Students think to themselves on a topic provided by the teacher;
they pair up with another student to discuss it; they then share their thoughts with the class.
Generating and revising hypotheses, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, application.
Participation, involvement. 3. Team Word - Webbing Students write simultaneously on a
piece of chart paper, drawing main concepts, supporting elements, and bridges representing
the relation of ideas in a concept. Analysis of concepts into components, understanding

12. multiple relations among ideas, differentiating concepts, Role-taking. F. MULTIFUNCTIONAL
1. Roundtable Each student in turn writes one answer as a paper and a pencil are passed
around the group. With simultaneous Roundtable more than one pencil and paper are used
at once. Assessing prior knowledge, practicing skills, recalling information, creating
cooperative art. Team building, participation of all. 2. Inside – Outside Circle Students stand
in pairs in two concentric circles. The inside circle face out, the outside circle faces in.
students use flashcard or respond to teacher questions as they rotate to each new partner.
Checking for understanding, review, processing, helping. Tutoring, sharing, meeting
classmates.
 95. 3. Partners Students work in pairs to create or master content. They consult with partners
from other teams. They then share their products or understanding with the other partner in
their team. Mastery and presentation of new material, concept, development. Presentation
and communication skills. 4. Jigsaw Each student on the team becomes an “expert” on one
topic by working with members from the other teams assigned the corresponding expert
topic. Upon returning to their teams, each one in turn teaches the group, and the students
are all assessed on all aspects of the topic. Acquisition and presentation of new material,
review, informed debate. Interdependence, status equalization 5. Co – op – Co – op
Students work in groups to produce a particular group product to share with the whole class.
Each student makes a particular contribution to the group. Learning and sharing complex
material, often with multiple sources, evaluation, application, analysis, synthesis
 96. H. CONTENT – BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION - as defined by Brintos, Snow and
Wesche, content – based language instruction is the integration of content learning with
language teaching aims. - it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter,
with the form and sequence of language presentation dictated by content material. Features:
1. The main instruction goal in this approach is to prepare the students for the academic task
they will encounter in school. 2. Students are provided with study skills and a familiarity with
scholarly discourse which they can transfer to other academic endeavors. 3. It focuses not
only on learning, but using the language as a medium to learn mathematics, science, social
science or other academic subjects.
 97. 4. Subject matter may consist of topics or themes selected for students interest or need.
5. CBLI uses the content, learning objectives and activities from the school curriculum as the
vehicle for teaching language skills. Teaching Methods and Strategies in CBLI a.
Cooperative Learning b. Task – Based or Experiential Learning c. Whole – Language
Approach
 98. I. INTEGRATIVE MODEL (TAB) - grounded in cognitive views of learning. - an inductive
strategy designed to help students 1. develop a deep understanding of organized bodies of
knowledge topics that combine facts, concepts, generalizations and the relationships among
them. 2. develop critical thinking skills at the same time. - closely related to the inductive
model. - planning lessons using integrative model includes identifying clear goals and then
preparing displays of data to help learners reach the goals - the data displays are commonly
matrices, but can include graphs, maps and charts in pictorial forms.
 99. Steps: 1. describe, compare and search for patterns – teacher directs students attention
to the topics for study. 2. Explains similarities and differences – the point where students are
immersed in critical thinking. 3. Hypothesize outcomes for different conditions. 4. Generalize
to form broad relationships – lesson is summarized and comes to course as students derive
one or more generalizations that summarize the content.
 100. J. GROUP COOPERATIVE LEARNING / EXPERIENTIAL INVESTIGATION - a model
which enables students to inquire into a social problem and observe themselves as inquirers
while the teacher serves as counselor – consultant and friendly critic. K. INDEPENDENT
LEARNING providing a high level of cognitive and affective development, independent
learning is a kind of instructional process where students proposes a study project,
investigation, research, or production of something which she or he will carry out almost
independently. The teacher’s role is to stimulate student participation, advise and counsel on

13. possible projects, grant approval if appropriate, supervise students and evaluate completed
project.
 101. L. SYNACTICS - a teaching model designed to increase students’ creativity through
formulating analogies or metaphors. It is built on assumptions that creativity, even though an
essentially emotional process can be learned and creativity can be fostered through group
activity.
 102. INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES CONTINUUM FROM PASSIVE TO ACTIVE LEARNING
-Lecture - Demonstration - Questioning - Discussion - Guided Practice - Independent
Practice - Grouping - Role Playing - Simulation - Reflective Inquiry/ Thinking
 103. LESSON PLANNING
 104. LESSON PLAN - is a day to day, step by step approach to learning. It sets forth the
proposal program or the instructional activities for the day. Types: a. BRIEF – an outline of
teacher’s activities and is usually done by master teachers b. SEMI – DETAILED – all
activities and teacher’s questions are listed and usually done by neophyte teachers. c.
DETAILED – all activities, teacher’s questions and students’ expected answers are reflected
and usually done by pre – service teachers.
 105. PLAN I. OBJECTIVES - Cognitive - Psychomotor - Affective II. SUBJECT MATTER -
Topics/Concepts - Values Integrated - References - Materials III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES A.
Preparatory Activities 1. Drill – activity that will enable the students to automatize response to
pre – requisite skill of the new lesson.
 106. 2. Review – activity that will refresh or renewpreviously taught material. 3. Introduction
– an activity that will set the purpose of the day’s lesson. 4. Motivation – all activities that
arouse the interest of the learners. 2 types: a. Intrinsic Motivation – sustaining self – interest
to learn. - maintains self – curiosity and involvement in the work by using surprise, doubt,
novel as well as familiar things. b. Extrinsic Motivation – interest that is ignited by an outward
force like awards – monetary or material things, scholarships, inspiration from love ones.
 107. B. Developmental Activities 1. Presentation of the Lesson – real life situation or within
the experience of the learners are incorporated. - teacher uses different activities as a
vehicle to translate the knowledge, values and skills into learning that could be applied in
their lives outside the school. 2. Discussion / Analysis – asking a series of affective or
cognitive questions about the lesson presented. 3. Abstraction / Generalization – the
summary of the lesson. - organizing significant information about the lesson presented. -
completing graphic organizers like concept map, Venn Diagram, fish bone, table, matrices
and etc.
 108. C. Closure / Application – relates the lesson to other situations in the forms of: -
dramatization, simulation and play - story telling - oral reading - construction and drawing -
written composition - singing or reciting a poem - test - creative works - solving problems IV.
Evaluation – determines whether the objectives are met and achieved - questioning -
summarizing
 109. - comparing present and previous learning - assigning work – project, research -
administering short quiz - portfolios - rubrics - journals V. Assignment 1. An activity done
outside the classroom/at home to: - reinforce or enrich the day’s lesson - set the materials
that students have to bring to school to implement the next lesson. 2. The activity should
help attain the day’s lesson objective. It should be interesting and differentiated (with
provision for remedial, reinforcement and enrichment activities.)
 110. DIFFERENCE AMONG AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES AIMS – are the most
general objectives of the Philippine Education System. They are broad and value – laden
statements expressing philosophical and ethical considerations that: a. answer the needs
and demands of the society especially children and youth. b. are formulated by experts as
policy – making bodies, panels and commissions. c. are societal in nature or in a national
level concern. Example: Prepare students for a democratic citizenship. GOALS –
descriptions of the general objectives of school’s curricula/courses that are expected to: a.
accomplish and organize learning experiences stressed on a system – wide basis.

14.  111. b. represent the entire school program prepared by a professional associations or any
local educational agencies. Example: Development of reading skills. Understanding
mathematical concepts. Appreciation of art works. OBJECTIVES – are the descriptions of
what eventually take place in the classroom. a. They should be SMART (specific,
measurable, attainable, realistic, time bound) b. These are used as a standard way of
judging what has been achieved or not achieved. c. Their chief functions is to guide the
teachers in making decisions on what to cover, what to emphasize, what content to select,
and what learning experience, activity, strategy or method best suit a certain learning plan.
 112. d. Have 2 essential components namely behavior and content but for assessment
purposes, the objective should be written with the following elements: A – audience or the
performer B – behavior or the action verb specifying the learning outcome C – content of the
subject matter C – criterion or the degree of performance considered sufficient to
demonstrate mastery Example: The student (audience) should distinguish (behavior) all
(criterion) objectives indicating learning outcomes (content) from a set of objectives having
both learning outcomes and learning activities (condition). 2 types of Objectives: 1. Terminal
– an important learning outcome that should be attained at the end of the instruction.
 113. 2. Enroute or enabling – the objective leading to the attainment of the terminal objective.
SPECIFICATIONS OF OBJECTIVES - it refers to the process of formulating objectives in a
functional form( i.e. complex to simple). It follows the following steps: 1. State the general
unit objectives in terms of expected learning outcomes (terminal objectives). Dimensions of
Learning Outcomes: a. Knowledge – recall and remembering of information essential to a
discipline or subject area. b. Reasoning – student ability to use knowledge to reason and
solve problems. c. Skills – student ability to demonstrate achievement – related skills such as
reading aloud, interpersonal interaction, speaking a second language and performing
psychomotor behaviors.
 114. d. Products – student ability to create achievement – related products such as written
report, oral presentations, projects, artworks. e. Affective – (attitudes, values and
appreciations) – moods and connections or dispositions to act in a given manner toward a
person, thing, or event and the sensitive awareness or perception of worth of an object or
event. 2. State terminal learning outcome in measurable learner performance or product -
avoid terms like KNOW, UNDERSTAND, LEARN, THINK, and APPRECIATE because they
are not observable behaviors. 3. Obtain representative samples of essential and supportive
pre- requisites (enroute or enabling objectives).
 115. Sequencing of Objectives - the process of ordering or arranging the behavior of the
objectives in the same content in hierarchical order from simplest to most complex. The
designers of objectives in many forms were finalized based from: 1. TYLER – interprets
philosophical and psychological concerns of instructional objectives. 2. Gronlunds –
distinguishes objectives between general and specific outcomes. 3. Mager – relies on three
major characteristics as behavioral, conditional and with proficiency level in the formulation
of objectives. 4. Gagne – just as precise as Mager – defines types of learning objectives as
measurable and observable. 5. Bloom and his associates (1956) – developed the taxonomy
of cognitive objectives
 116. 6. Krathwohl and Associates (1964) – developed the taxonomy of affective objectives.
7. Simpson – developed the taxonomy of psychomotor objectives Domains and Taxonomy of
Instructional Objectives Taxonomy – classification systems of learning heirarchy. LEVEL
DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES 1. Knowledge
Recalling and remembering previously learned material including specific facts, events,
persons , dates, methods, procedures concepts, principles and theories Name, match, list,
identify, recall, define, label, select, state Identify equal fractions. 2. Comprehensi on
Understanding and grasping the meaning of something, including translation from one
symbolic form to another interpretation, explanation, prediction, inferences, restating,
estimation and other uses that Explain, convert, estimate, describe, interpret, illustrate, infer,

15. represent Change fractions to lower/higher term A. Cognitive – refers to the mental or
thought complexity
 117. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES 3.
Application Using abstract ideas, rules or generalized methods in novel and concrete
situations. Demonstrate, use, apply, solve, prepare, implement, carry out, construct, show
Add two to four similar fractions. 4. Analysis Breaking down a communication into a
constituent parts or elements and understanding the relationship among different elements
Differentiate, distinguish, discriminate, relate, compare, contrast, classify, categorize
Analyzed word problems involving addition and subtraction of similar fractions 5. Synthesis
Arranging and combining elements and parts into novel patterns or structures Combine,
assemble, suggest, integrate, create, plan, propose, Design, conclude, synthesize,
summarize Solve non – routine problems involving fractions 6. Evaluation Judging the quality
worth, or value of something according to established criteria Appraise, critique, judge,
weigh, evaluate, verify, confirm, defend, decide, justify Judge the reasonableness of a given
solution to a word problem
 118. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES 1.
Receiving/atte nding Develops an awareness , shows willingness to receive, shows
controlled or selected attention, Observe, listen, attend, look, watch, Pay attention to the
traits of a well – kept house 2. Responding Shows willingness to respond and finds some
initial level of satisfaction in responding Share, follow, respond, comply, conform, react Keep
the house clean and orderly as told. 3. Valuing Shows the object, person or situation has
worth. Something is perceived as holding appositive value, a commitment is made. Admire,
support, praise, assist, cooperate, participate, conserve, promote Formulate a cleaning
schedule in the house indicating tasks that need cleaning daily, weekly, and occasionally. 4.
Organization Brings together a complex set of values and organizes them in an ordered
relationship that is harmonious and internally consistent. Propose, resolve, balance,
integrate, organize Keep the house clean and orderly everyday B. Affective Domain –
reflects underlying emotions, feelings or values
 119. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES
5.Characterization Organized system of values becomes a person’s like outlook and the
basis for a philosophy of life Advocate, approve, justify, influence, commit, assert, maintain
Maintain the cleanliness and orderliness of one’s house and other places at all times c.
Psychomotor – observable reflexive behavior, which involves cognitive and affective
components 1. Perception Uses the sense organ to obtain cues that guide motor activity;
(awareness), through cue selection to translation Monitor, observe, listen, watch Observe
how to position the fingers in the keyboard 2. Set Readiness to take a particular action,
includes mental, physical, and emotional set. Perception is an important prerequisite. Show,
prepare, set- up, ready Tell the order of the alphabet in the keyboard
 120. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES 3. Guided
Response Concerned with the early stages of learning a complex skill. Includes imitation,
trial and error. Imitate, follow, copy, install, repeat, practice Practice proper position in the
keyboard. 4. Mechanism Concerned with the habitual responses that can be performed with
some confidence and proficiency. Less complex Demonstrate, manipulate, collect, draw,
use, sketch, type, write Type at least 60 words per minute using the correct position of the
fingers. 5. Complex/over t response Skillfully performs acts that require complex movement
patterns, like the highly coordinated motor activities. Proficiency indicated by quick, smooth
and accurate performance, requiring a minimum of effort. Operate, build, construct, drive,
troubleshoot Execute the print formatting operations. 6. Adaptation Concern with skills so
well learned that they are modified to fit special requirement or to meet problem situations.
Change, modify, repair, adjust, integrate Use the desktop publishing applications in creating
income
 121. LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF OBJECTIVES 7.
Origination Creates new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or problem Create,

16. originate, produce, develop, compose Creates one’s own web page. KNOWLEDGE
COMPREHENSION APPLICATION ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS EVALUATION Levels of
Cognitive Domain LOWEST HIGHEST
 122. Levels of Affective Domain RECEIVING RESPONDING VALUING ORGANIZING
CHARACTERIZING HIGHEST LOWEST
 123. Levels of Psychomotor Domain HIGHEST LOWESTPERCEPTION SET GUIDED
RESPONSE MECHANISM COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE ADAPTATION ORIGINATION
 124. Art of Questioning – Questioning – key technique in teaching - used for a variety of
purposes. Purposes of Questions: 1. Arouse interest and curiosity 2. Review content already
learned 3. Stimulate learners to ask questions 4. Promote thought and the understanding of
ideas 5. Change the mood/tempo, direction of the discussion 6. Encourage reflection and
self – evaluation 7. Allow expression of feelings Types of Questions: 1. According to thinking
process involved: a. low – level questions – focus on facts - do not test level of
understanding or problem solving skills
 125. Ex. Who discovered the cell? b. High level questions – go beyond memory and factual
information, more advance, stimulating and more challenging, involves abstraction and point
of view. Ex. How did Robert Hooke discover the cell? 2. According to the type of answer
required: a. Convergent questions – tend to have one correct and best answer. - use to drill
learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral skills but not appropriate in eliciting thoughtful
responses. - usually start with what, who, where and when - are referred to as low level
questions - are useful when applying the inductive approach and requires short and specific
information from the learners.
 126. b. Divergent questions - open – ended and usually have many appropriate answer. -
reasoning is supported by evidence and examples. - associated with high level thinking
processes and encourage creative thinking and discovery learning. - usually start with how
and why, what or who followed by why 3. According to the cognitive taxonomy: 1st level
Knowledge memorize, recall, label, specify, define, list, cite etc 2nd level Comprehension
Describe, discuss, explain, summarize, translate, etc 3rd level application Solve, employ,
demonstrate, operate, experiment, etc. 4th level analysis Interpret, differentiate, compare,
invent, develop, generalize 5th level synthesis Invent, develop, generalize 6th level
evaluation Criticize, judge, interpret
 127. 4. According to questions used by teachers during open discussion a. eliciting questions
– these are employed to: 1. encourage initial response 2. encourage more students to
participate in the discussion 3. rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out b. Probing
question – seek to extend ideas, justify ideas, and clarify ideas. c. Closure – seeking
questions – used to help students form conclusions, solutions or plans for investigating
problems. Guidelines in Asking questions 1. wait time – the interval between asking a
question and the student response. This is a 3-4 seconds think – time. 2. prompting – uses
hints and techniques to assist students to come up with a response successfully.
 128. 3. Redirection – involves asking of a single question for which there are several
answers. 4. Probing – a qualitative technique use d for the promotion of effective thought and
critical thinking - provides the students a chance to support and defend a stand or point of
view. 5. Commenting and prompting – used to increase achievement and motivation. Tips on
asking questions: 1. Ask questions that are: - stimulating / thought provoking - within
students level of abilities - relevant to students daily life situations - sequential – a stepping
stone to the next - clear and easily understood
 129. 2. Vary the length and difficulty of the question. 3. Have sufficient time for deliberation 4.
Follow up incorrect answer 5. Call on volunteers or non – volunteers 6. Call on disruptive
students 7. Move around the room for rapport / socialization 8. Encourage active
participation 9. Phrase questions clearly. 10. Ask as many learner as possible to answer
certain question.
 130. APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE
LESSON A. Introductory/Opening/Initiatory activities: - starters and unfreezing activities to

17. make students feel at ease - used to motivate the students to participate and to set the tone
for the day. - liken to “preparing the ground before sowing or planting”. - activities given for
students not just to enjoy or for the sake of enjoyment but should have motivational function
because they are related to the day’s lesson. 1. KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned) 2.
Video clips 3. Editorial from a current newspaper 4. Posing a scientific question that requires
students to formulate hypothesis or predict what’s going to happen
 131. 5. Cartoon or comic strip 6. Game 7. Simulation 8. Puzzle, brain teaser 9. Mysterious
Scenario 10. Song 11. Picture without a caption 12. Quotable quote 13. Anecdote 14.
Compelling stories from history, literature related to the lesson 15. Current Events 16.
Diagnostic Test 17. Skit, role playing 18. Voting 19. Ranking, ordering
 132. 20. Devil’s advocate 21. Conflict story 22. Brainstorming 23. Buzz session 24. Question
and answer B. Developmental Activities 1. For data gathering a. interview b. library research
c. internet research d. reading e. lecture f. inviting resource speakers g. field trip h.
experiment
 133. i. panel discussion j. hands – on – learning k. case study 2. For Organizing and
Summarizing: a. using graphic organizer b. jingles, raps, song c. verses d. acrostic e. power
point presentation 3. For Application/Creative Activities a. solving real world problems b.
performances and demonstrations c. authentic projects d. portfolios of students’ best work or
work in progress e. letters to the editor
 134. f. power point presentation g. brochures h. writing and performing a song, rap or a
musical i. news report for local news program j. television talk shows k. mock debates and
mock trials l. mock job interviews m. personal narratives n. cartoons and comic strips o.
organizing a symposium C. Concluding Activities: a. finish and review the KWL b. passport to
leave c. journal writing at the end of the period d. Preview coming attractions
 135. e. 3/2/1 countdown – 3 – facts I learned today, 2 – ways I will use the information/skills I
learned today, 1 – question I have f. using analogies g. completing unfinished sentences h.
synthesize or summarize the lesson
 136. SELECTION AND USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
 137. PRINCIPLES 1. All instructional materials are aids of instructions. They do not replace
the teacher. 2. Choose the instructional materials that best suits your instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools. 4. Check out your instructional material before class
starts to be sure it is working well. 5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the
use of media which includes: a. learn how to use the instructional material. b. prepare
introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need. c. provide a conducive
environment d. explain the objectives of the lesson
 138. e. stressed what to be watched or listened to carefully f. state what they are expected to
do with the information they will learn g. prepare measure that can assess students’
experiences on the use of the material based on the objectives.
 139. VARIOUS FORMS OF MEDIA 1. AUDIO RECORDINGS – include tapes, recordings,
and compact discs used by teachers in connection with speech rehearsals, drama, musical
presentations, and radio and television broadcasting 2. OVERHEAD TRANSPARANCY OR
OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP) - transparency can show pictures, diagrams and sketches
at a time. 3. BULLETIN BOARD – usually stationary on a wall or it can be movable which
contains pictures, newspaper clippings, real objects or drawings attached on its surface
usually made from cork or soft wall boards. 4. CHALKBOARD – a convenient writing area
where illustrations can instantly be drawn even during discussion.
 140. 5. CHARTS - may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and cut outs. - maybe
pre-prepared graphic devices or posters. 6. Mock – ups – is a replica of an object that may
be larger or smaller in scale which can be used to show the essential parts which are made
detachable. 7. REALIA – stands for the real things that are to be studied. 8. VIDEO TAPES
OR FILMS – motion pictures clearly show movement and sequence of events which usually
motivates learners easily. 9. MODELS – scaled replicas of real objects which include globe
car models etc. 10. PICTURES – include flat, opaque and still pictures. - “Pictures are worth

18. ten thousand words” 11. BOOKS – present accurate facts and details that serve as
permanent sources of information
 141. 12. ELECTRONIC MATERIALS – CD’s, DVD’s and CD - ROM’s
Transcript
 1. The teacher tells or shows directly what he/she wants to teach. This is also referred to as
direct instruction.
 2. According to Bob Adamson, “The deductive method is often criticized because: a) it
teaches grammar in an isolated way; b) little attention is paid to meaning; c) practice is often
mechanical.”
 3. Instruction makes use of student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and
following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents students with many examples
showing how the concept is used. The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the
examples, how the concept works.
 4. How personalized should the learning be? Students will usually be more involved in the
learning experience and tend to participate more actively when an inductive approach is
used. If a deductive approach is chosen, it is important to structure the learning experience in
order to draw on students' prior experiences and learning, and to provide for their active
involvement.
 5. What depth of understanding and rate of retention is desired? Students tend to
understand and remember more when learning occurs inductively. Should learning
experiences be predictable? The deductive approach is more predictable because the
teacher selects the information and the sequence of presentation. 
 6. How much time is available to teach the material? The deductive approach is faster and
can be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and concrete concepts.
 7. Deductive Method Inductive Method 1. It does not give any new knowledge. 1. It gives
new knowledge 2. It is a method of verification. 2. It is a method of discovery. 3. It is the
method of instruction. 3. It is a method of teaching. 4. Child gets ready made information and
makes use of it. 4.Child acquires first hand knowledge and information by actual observation.
5. It is quick process. 5. It is a slow process. 6. It encourages dependence on other sources.
6. It trains the mind and gives self confidence and initiative. 7. There is less scope of activity
in it. 7. It is full of activity. 8. It is a downward process of thought and leads to useful results.
8. It is an upward process of thought and leads to principles.
 8. 1. Blended Learning Learning that is facilitated by the effective combination of different
modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning, and is based on transparent
communication amongst all parties involved with a course. Heinze, A.; C. Procter (2004).
 9. 2. Reflective Teaching Students/teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of past
experiences.
Transcript
 1. TEACHINGMETHODSFaculty Development TrainingPanpacific University North
PhilippinesUrdaneta City, Pangasinan, PhilippinesIGS Conference RoomMay 23, 2013HRM
Function HallOctober 23, 2012MARIA MARTHA MANETTE APOSTOL MADRID,
Ed.D.Lecturer
 2. The ability to carry out a task ina cautious and watchful way.Style or manner of a
teacher’sperformance in following aprocedure.A unique way of presenting atopic to the
learners in adeptnessin performing the steps to attain alearning objective.A carefully

19. devised plan of actionto achieve an objective.It is a well-panned procedurethat guides the
direction inundertaking a learning activity.A systematic plan to achieve alearning
objective.WHO NEEDS Methods, Strategiesand Techniques in
Teaching?StudentsTeachers
 3. Criteria for Method SelectionObjectives to bepursuedKind of
participationexpectedStudent’s learning orexperienceStudent’s interestStudent’s
abilitiesSubjects to betaughtInstructionalequipment, toolsand materialsContext of the
teachingsituationKnowledge and ability of theteacherSafety precautions
 4. Independent StudyJournal WritingNarrativesIndividualizedInstructionDiscovery
ApproachExperiential LearningSpecial Reports,Student ResearchMultipleIntelligence
TheoryProjects and CollectionsConstructivistApproachCreative WritingProblem Solving
 5. Individualized Teaching MethodsLearning is Individualized andpersonalizedTeacher acts
as facilitatorIndependent StudyWriting Journals Feedback and expression ofself
actualizationEncourage to write interestingand insightful experiencesNarrativesFacilitating
recall of factsin story-modeAssist in recalling learningexperiences throughreflection
 6. Individualized Teaching MethodsLearning Activities areplannedVaried materials must
beavailableIndividualizedInstructionPreparing Projectsand CollectionsTechniques that bring
outcreativity and resourcefulnessTrain them to embark onsomething worthwhileDiscovery
ApproachStudent gains first-handexperienceMaterials and tools areavailableExhibit scientific
attitude andsystematic work habits
 7. Individualized Teaching MethodsTeaching is providing relevantexperiencesInquiry
teaching –asksquestionsConstructivistApproachExperientialLearningAcquiring knowledge of
skillsthrough direct and keenobservationsReal-life situations inplanning lessonSpecial
ReportsAbility to communicate forstudents to gain skill andexperienceOral and written
reports by anindividual or by groups
 8. Individualized Teaching MethodsTraining to develop decisionmaking and responsibility
byfollowing a scientific methodOccasional questions andsimple remindersStudent
ResearchProblem Solving First-hand experience-develop critical-mindedness, and
HOTSPrioritize development ofskills and attitudesCreative writing Skill in communicating
ideas isdevelopedProvide sufficient practice
 9. GAGNE’S MODEL OFGIFTEDNESS & TALENT
 10. Cooperative LearningApproachRole PlayingSociodramaPeer TutoringDirect
InstructionInquiry ApproachReading,Integrative ApproachMicroteachingExperimentingUsing
InstructionalDevices
 11. Methodology for Small GroupsGroup-orientedInterdependent relationship
isstrengthenObserve the skills(speed, willingness, etc.)CooperativeLearningRole
PlayingCapitalizes the experiencesgained and what was learnedCapability of role
players“Discuss and evaluateperformances”Special ReportsAbility to communicate
forstudents to gain skill andexperienceOral and written reports by anindividual or by groups
 12. Methodology for Small GroupsStudents identify with thepersons they are portraying
andtherefore feel the same wayDevelop interactions among therole-playersSociodramaPeer
Tutoring Tutees receive individualizedinstruction, as though their ownteacherTeacher should
be aroundAfter a tutoring activity, evaluationperformance should be
undertakenMicroteachingAfter gaining an experience or abrief lesson, we give critique
afeedbackLesson or experience must be briefbut complete, feedback is guidedmay employ
oral and written
 13. Methodology for Small GroupsEmphasizes the learning of skillsby way of demonstrating
a step-by-step procedureStudent and Performance basedActual DemonstrationsDirect
InstructionInquiry ApproachDiscovery, Scientific thinking andproblem solvingFacilitator and
counselorReadingTeaching Methodology requires thestudents to search informationfrom
printed and illustratedmaterialsGuide questions, problems orsubtopics
 14. Methodology for Small GroupsStudents form a concept frombodies of knowledge
presentedDiscover the relationship of factsIntegrativeApproachExperimenting Learning

20. activity wherein astudent investigates a problemby manipulating a variableUsing
instructionaldevicesInstructional devices take thecenter stageProvide a workshop, or
anorientation equipped withinstruction, direction suit to thelevel of understanding
 15. DiscussionReflective teachingConceptteachingInterest
LearningCentersDemonstrationLectureSimulation,Inviting SpecialistsTeam
TeachingFieldtripField Study
 16. Methodologies for a ClassOrderly verbal interchangeOpportunity to gain
communicationskills -listening, and respondingapproachUse Inquiry, Q and A formatUse
together with othermethodologies to avid “continuoustalk”DISCUSSIONReflective
TeachingStudents recaptures hisexperience , thinks about itand evaluates itEx. Journal
Writing andPortfolioConcept teachingKnowledge and experience aresort out to form a
specific classDirect presentation – rule toexampleConcept attainment – exampleto rule
method
 17. Methodologies for a ClassLesson is presented through areal-life learningPrepared
materials andquestions and length of timeneededDemonstrationFiled Studies Out of the
school classroomactivity intended to presentconcepts in the most realisticmannerTeam
Teaching Exposure of the class to severalteacherBased on competence in bothknowledge
and skill
 18. Methodologies for a ClassOral presentation of an expertLectureSimulationTeaching by
the use of simulationgamesConsists of role, ruleslanguage, valuesInviting SpecialistListen to
an interview or aspecialist of a topicPrepare the studentsFIELDTRIP Out-of-the-classroom
activitywhere students study things intheir natural settingBoth involved in planningGuide
questions or pointers forobservationFollow-up activity
 19. Methods and LearningResourcesTechnology-AidedStrategiesAudiovisual
MediaCommunity Resources
 20. Reference/sMethods of Teaching. GloriaSalanadan, Quezon City: LorimarPublication,
2012.Teaching method - Wikipedia, the
freeencyclopediaen.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_method150 Teaching Methods | Center
forTeaching & Learning | UNC ...teaching.uncc.edu/...methods/1www.slideshare.netNote:
Lecture available athttp://www.slideshare.net/MariaMarthaManetteMadrid/teaching-methods-
21761134
 21. Harry Wong had said, trueeducators are the ones whowill always be willing toshare their
knowledge andresources to othereducators.
Transcript
 1. Teaching Strategies for Inclusion of Special EducationStudents
By: Sarah Sperazza
Special Education Teacher
 2. IDEA (Individuals with disabilities education act)
According to IDEA, all special education students are to be placed in the Least Restrictive
Environment (LRE) to meet their needs.
Individual Education Program (IEP) team must first consider regular education as the starting
point for placement.
 3. 1. Difficulty of Instruction
Adapt the expected skill level, type of problem/task, or rules for completing the task
Examples:
Use of calculator for math problems
Simplify directions
Reduce number of choices for answers

21.  4. 2. Time
Adapt time given or allowed for learning or completing a task
Example:
Increase time for assignments and tests
 5. 3. Size
Adaptthe expected number of items to learn or complete
Examples:
Reduce the number of terms the student must learn
Reduce number of math problems to compute
 6. 4. Level of Support
Adapt or increase amount of individual assistance with a specific learner.
Examples:
Teaching assistant
Peer buddy
Peer tutor
One on one instruction
 7. 5. Alternate
While using the same materials, adapt the expectations, goals, or outcomes.
Example:
In language Arts, expect a student to identify the meaning of new terms while others must
also use them in a sentence.
 8. 6. Input
Adaptthe manner in which the instruction is delivered
Examples:
Auditory and visual aids
Hands on lessons
Small group instruction
Concrete examples
Supply notes
 9. 7. Output
Adapt the ways students can respond to instruction
Examples:
Verbal responses
Use of hands on materials to show understanding
Assistive technology (switches, communication board, etc.)
 10. 8. Participation
Adapt the extent to which the student is actively involved or participating in a lesson or task
Examples:
A student can…
Operate the DVD player
Hold up a map during history class
Collect assignments
 11. 9. Substitute Curriculum
Adaptinstruction and materials to meet the individual goals of the student’s IEP (Individual
Education Program)
Example:
Practicing computer skills while others students are taking a written test
Transcript

22.  1. The Effective Teacher Who is the effective teacher ? Prepared by: Bernadine Jacinto.
2007-49001. Educ190.
 2. Who is the effective teacher?Teachers are born, not madeTeaching: A Science and an
ArtTeaching Styles: Thelen, Riessman, and RubinEffective Behaviors in Teaching Low-
Income ElementaryStudentsTips for TeachersEncourage Your Students! HOME
 3. “Teachers are born, not made.” It is important to know which approach to teaching works
best for you and for your class. Ask yourself the right questions.• Student-Teacher
Interaction • Teaching-Learning Process • Classroom Environment
 4. Student-Teacher Interaction1. Was there evidence that the teacher truly understood the
students’ needs? How did the teacher respond to those needs?2. What techniques did the
teacher use to teach discipline to the students?3. What behaviors were acceptable? What
were unacceptable?
 5. Student-Teacher Interaction 4. How did the teacher encourage the students to participate
in the different classroom activities? 5. Was the teacher able to see things from the students’
point of view? 6. Was the teacher able to provided and use students’ curiosity? 7. Was there
evidence of affective development in the students?
 6. Teaching-Learning Process1. Which instructional methods and materials interested the
students? Which ones encouraged them to think about ideas, opinions, and answers?2. How
did the teacher minimize student frustration or confusion concerning the skills or concepts
being taught?
 7. Teaching-Learning Process 3. How did the teacher provide transition between
instructional activities? 4. How were the lessons integrated into practical life experiences?
How were they integrated with the other subjects? 5. How were the students grouped? Were
social factors considered?
 8. Teaching-Learning Process 6. How did the teacher encourage a positive learning
environment? How did s/he encourage creativity and the use of imagination? 7. How did the
teacher encourage independent (or individualized) student learning? 8. What methods reflect
sound knowledge of the subject matter?
 9. Classroom Environment1. How did the teacher utilize the space and classroom equipment
effectively?2. How were the desks and chairs arranged? Why?3. In what ways was the
classroom esthetically pleasant? What did you like and dislike about the physical
environment of the classroom?
 10. Teaching: A Science and an Art“Teaching is both a science and an art. The science is
based on psychological research that identifies cause-effect relationships between teaching
and learning. The art is how those relationships are implemented in successful and artistic
teaching.
 11. Teaching: A Science and an Art“All excellent teaching does not look the same but it does
contain the same basic psychological elements… Teachers need to learn the science of
pedagogy so they, in their own classroom with their own personalities, can implement it
artistically…” - Madeline Hunter Professor of Education UCLA
 12. TEACHING STYLESFind out which of these educators’ teaching styles you most identify
with. •Herbert Thelen •Frank Riessman •Louis Rubin
 13. Herbert Thelen (1954) Teaching Style DescriptionSocratic The image is a wise,
somewhat crusty teacher who purposely gets into arguments with students over the subject
matter through artful questioning.Town-Meeting Teachers who adapt this style use a great
deal of discussion and lay a moderator role that enables students to work out answers to
problems by themselves.
 14. Herbert Thelen (1954) Teaching Style DescriptionApprenticeship This person serves as
a role model toward learning, as well as occupational outlook, perhaps even toward general
life.Boss-Employee This teacher asserts authority and provides reward and punishment to
see that work is done.Good-Old Team The image is one of a group of playersPerson
listening to the coach working as a team.

23.  15. Frank Riessman (1967)Teaching Style DescriptionCompulsive This teacher is fussy,
teaches things over and over, and is concerned with functional order and structure.Boomer
This teacher shouts in a loud, strong voice: “You’re going to learn”, there is no nonsense in
the classroom.Quiet One Sincere, calm, but definite, this teacher commands both respect
and attention.
 16. Frank Riessman (1967)Teaching Style DescriptionCoach This teacher is informal, earthy,
and maybe an athlete; he is physically expressive in conducting the class.Maverick
Everybody loves this teacher, except perhaps the principal. S/he raises difficult questions
and presents ideas that disturb.The Entertainer This teacher is free enough to joke and laugh
with the students
 17. Frank Riessman (1967)Teaching Style DescriptionSecular This person is relaxed and
informal with children; s/he will have lunch with them or play ball with them.Academic This
teacher is interested in knowledge and substance of ideas.
 18. Louis Rubin (1985)Teaching Style DescriptionExplanatory The teacher is in command of
the subject matter and explains particular aspects of the lesson.Inspiratory The teacher is
stimulating and exhibits emotional involvement in teachingInformative The teacher presents
information through verbal statements. The student is expected to listen and follow
instructions.
 19. Louis Rubin (1985)Teaching Style DescriptionCorrective The teacher provides feedback
to the student– analyzing the work, diagnosing errors, and presenting corrective
advice.Interactive Through dialogue and questioning, the teacher facilitates development of
students’ ideasProgrammatic The teacher guides the students’ activities and facilitates self
instruction and independent learning.
 20. Less time spent on classroom management Less criticism, more praise and positive
motivation  Fewer teacher rebukesenvironment  Less deviant, disruptive pupil behaviorof
learning Effective Behaviors in Teaching Elementary Low-Income StudentsTeaching
Function Effective BehaviorsMaintenance
 21. Less independent workMore time spent in large group or whole class activities  More
class time spent in task- related activities Effective Behaviors in Teaching Elementary Low-
Income StudentsTeaching Function Effective BehaviorsUse of Pupil Time
 22. More attention to students when they are workingInstruction independentlyEffective
Behaviors in Teaching Elementary Low-Income StudentsTeaching Function Effective
BehaviorsMethod of
 23. Tipping chair back and forth Being unprepared (ex. no pencil or notebook) Disturbing
other classmates Sitting with elbows on desk or hand underneath thighs Gazing
somewhere else Laying head on desk Doing other things during class discussion (ex.
reading, doodling) Moving around unnecessarilyTips for Teachers Cues for recognizing
attentiveness and inattentivenessINATTENTIVE BEHAVIORS
 24. Sitting still in class Alert, energetic, positive facial expressions Being prepared Doing
subject task during free time Turning around to listen to classmate speaking Actively
engaged/working on assignments and activities Maintaining eye contact with teacher
Raising hand to volunteer a responseTips for Teachers Cues for recognizing attentiveness
and inattentivenessATTENTIVE BEHAVIORS
 25. Encourage your students! It is important for your students to knowthrough your verbal
responses, gestures and facialexpressions, through eye contact and proximitythat you are
interested in what they have to say.Encourage them to participate, and let them knowit is
okay to make mistakes. The effective teacheris one who recognizes his/her role in
helpingstudents help themselves.HOME
Transcript

24.  1. TEACHERS ROLES OF A TEACHER
 2. It is difficult to give general descriptions of good teachers. Because… • Successful •
Extrovert / Introvert • But a lot will depend on how view their teachers What is a good
teacher?
 3. Such teachers learn through: I. Personality II. Intelligence III. Knowledge IV. Experience
“GOOD TEACHERS ARE BORN,NOT MADE” Others do not have that natural gift. 
People who has an affinity for the job. 
 4. Is not an easy job but it is very rewarding. . TEACHING…
 5. “The range of images that teachers use about themselves indicates the range of views
they have about their profession” Teachers
 6. Controller Prompter Participant Resource Tutor ROLES OF A TEACHER
 7. It exemplifies the qualities of a teacher-fronted classroom. CONTROLLER It is the most
common teacher role.  They take registers, tell students things and read aloud.  Activity is
leading from the front. 
 8. Teachers need to do it sensitively and encouragingly. PROMPTER Encourage students /
Creativity. 
 9. It can be enjoyable PARTICIPANT Feedback / correct mistakes  Teachers stand back
from the activity and they let their learners to get on with it. 
 10. “No teacher knows everything about the language” RESOURCE They offer students
GUIDANCE  They answer to some questions.  Teachers are helpful and available 
 11. The classroom´s atmosphere is greatly enhanced. TUTOR Teachers are advisors.  It
combines the roles of prompter and organiser. 
Transcript
 1. EXISTENTIALISM Philosophy of Education
 2. EXISTENTIALISM Existence Essence Freedom to Choose Responsibility ? ?? ?
 3. Why do I exist?Why am I here? What is my purpose in life? What is my essence?
 4. What is EXISTENCE?
 5. From the Latin words… ex (out) stare (to stand) Exsistere (to stand out)
 6. To appear To arise To become To be
 7. What is ESSENCE?
 8. Meaning Purpose What it is Nature
 9. Every individual is unique. Humans possess free will and stand in an absurd and
meaningless world or universe.  It is subjective.  It is the modern philosophical view which
takes the TAO as its starting point. What is Existentialism?
 10. The individual is the sole judge of his or her own actions. Emphasis on human
responsibility and judgment in ethical matters.  Individuals have to take responsibility for
their own actions and shape their own destinies. What is Existentialism?
 11. Human persons do not possess the essence; they make choices that create their own
nature. “Existence precedes essence.”  Human freedom is understood precisely as the
freedom to choose. What is Existentialism?
 12. Freedom of choice entails risk, responsibility, and commitment. Choice is vital and
inevitable to human existence; even the refusal to choose is a choice. What is
Existentialism?
 13. “At birth, man lacks human nature, Man creates himself; what he is, he himself made.
Man is only what he himself wills himself to be. Man is nothing else but what he makes of
himself…” (Sahakian andWhat is Existentialism? Sahakian, pp. 563-565)

25.  14. Human existence is the starting point of thinking. Choice or decision makes one
responsible for the effects of his choice not only to himself but also to others since his choice
also affects other people.  Will/loob/nakem = Choice  Will (loob or nakem) enables man to
make a conscious decision of what he will be. What is Existentialism?
 15. uniqueness of the individual commitment  personal concern  concreteness of
experience  Existentialism deals with: What is Existentialism?
 16. creative effort personal love  individual dignity  freedom of choice  The values of
existentialism are: What is Existentialism?
 17. What is Existentialism? Factors that affect freedom of choice (Calderon, 2004): 1.
Influence of the family, especially the parents 2. Influence of peers and associates 3.
Religious orientation 4. Social approval 5. Cultural patterns
 18. What is Existentialism? Factors that affect freedom of choice (Calderon, 2004): 6.
Financial status 7. Psychological traits, especially intelligence 8. Sex 9. Health and physical
fitness 10. Education
 19. Existentialism on Epistemology: Knowing is to make personal choices. To choose or
appropriate what I want to know. Existentialism on Metaphysics: Reality is subjective, with
existence preceding essence. Existence creates essence. What is Existentialism?
 20. Educational Implication: Classroom dialogues stimulate awareness that each person
creates self-concept through significant choices. Existentialism on Axiology: Values should
be freely chosen. What is Existentialism?
 21. Among the best-known existentialist philosophers are Sӧren Kierkegaard, Martin
Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus.The Proponents
 22. Human existence is always individual in character, never social.The father of
existentialism Danish philosopher born in Copenhagen Sӧren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
 23. “Life is not a problem to be solved, but a reality to be experienced.”Man functions,
grows, develops, makes choices, suffers, experiences intense feelings, and faces God as an
individual. (Sahakian and Sahakian, p. 553) Sӧren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)
 24. “Every man is born as many men and dies as a single one.”His ideas have exerted
influence on the development of contemporary European philosophy. German philosopher
whose work is associated with phenomenology and existentialism Martin Heidegger (1889-
1976)
 25. Arguably the best known philosopher of the twentieth centuryAn atheistic existentialist
French philosopher and principal spokesman for the existentialist movement in post-war
France Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980)
 26. Man first exists without purpose or definition, finds himself in the world and only then, as
a reaction to experience, defines the meaning of life.Essence is created by existence;
human nature is a product of existence. “Existence precedes essence.” Jean-Paul Sartre
(1905-1980)
 27. “The destiny of man is placed within himself.”“Man is condemned to be free.” We are
responsible for everything we do. According to him, since there is no God or designer to
give man a purpose, it is up to the individual to choose the life they think best. Jean-Paul
Sartre (1905-1980)
 28. Opposed systematic philosophyFrench-Algerian journalist, editor and editorialist,
playwright and director, novelist and author of short stories, political essayist and activist—
and arguably, although he came to deny it, a philosopher. Albert Camus (1913-1960)
 29. “I would rather live my life as if there is a God and die to find out there isn't, than live as if
there isn't and to die to find out that there is.”Dealt over such questions as the meaning of
life in the face of death. Albert Camus (1913-1960)
 30. To help the learner become fully his authentic self.To educate the whole person, not just
the mind, since feeling is not divorced from reason in decision making. To help students

26. understand and appreciate themselves as unique individuals who accept complete
responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Aim of Education
 31. Students are afforded great latitude in their choice of subject matter.Students are given
a wide variety of options from which to choose. Learning is self-paced, self-directed. The
Existentialist Curriculum
 32. The humanities are given emphasis to provide students with vicarious experiences that
will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression.The Existentialist Curriculum
 33. Vocational education is seen more as a means of teaching students about themselves
and their potentials than that of earning a livelihood.Composed of fine arts, drama, creative
expression, literature, and philosophy. The Existentialist Curriculum
 34. In teaching history, existentialists focus on the actions of historical individuals, who
provide possible models for the students’ own behavior, rather than emphasizing historical
events.Focus is on the individual. Methods of Teaching
 35. In teaching values, teachers employ values clarification strategy to help students know
themselves and their place in society. Here, teachers remain non-judgmental and take care
not to impose their values on their students since values are personal.In arts, existentialism
encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and imitating established
models. Creativity is an expression of oneself. Methods of Teaching
 36. Values education is a matter of choice that goes throughout existence.According to Del
Castillo (2013), through values clarification strategy, the learners will be able to practice
sound moral reasoning skills, choose the appropriate response for a value conflict and
commit themselves to personal, moral, and societal values. Methods of Teaching
 37. Criticism to any individual work is less important.There should be private and open
spaces in the classroom to facilitate dialogues, small group discussions, and individualization
to lessen the tension, formality, and constraint experienced by the learners. Methods of
Teaching
 38. To relates with each student openly and honestly.To create an environment in which
they freely choose their own preferred way. To help students define their own essence by
exposing them to various paths they take in life. Role of Teachers
 39. To help the individual identify and know himself better.To assist and guide the learner in
the process of becoming intelligent, sensitive, choosing, and acting individual who knows the
obligation and responsibility of freedom. Role of Teachers
 40. Identifier of choices who challenges the learner to become fully existent.Poser of
alternatives Questioner Role of Teachers
 41. To define their own essence or meaning of life.To freely choose what subject/s they
want to study as long as they are interested in it. Role of Learners
Transcript
 1. UNIVERSITY OF LUZON GRADUATE SCHOOLPERENNIALISM Reporter: KATHLEEN
LAT ENCARNACION
 2. They emphasize that students should not be taught information that may soon be
outdated or found to be incorrect. Aims to develop student’s intellectual and moral
qualities.PERENNIALISM
 3. It ensures that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western
civilization. Classrooms are centered on teachers.PERENNIALISM

27.  4. Aimed at teaching students ways of thinking that will secure individual freedoms, human
rights, and responsibilities through the nature. Perennialism teaches concepts and focuses
on knowledge and the meaning of knowledge.PERENNIALISM
 5. The teacher is not concern at the student’s interest. Emphasize the importance of
transferring knowledge, information and skills from the older generation to the younger
one.WHY IS IT CALLED TEACHER-CENTERED?
 6. The teacher set everything based on the syllabus.More focus on the curriculum and
nature need. WHY IS IT CALLED TEACHER-CENTERED?
 7. TEACHER-CENTERED PHILOSOPHIES Focus on curriculum . Sample Educational
classroom Leaders. PERENNIALISM activity. Goals for Role of Students. Teacher.
 8. Focus On Sample Role of Teacher Goals for Educational Curriculum Classroom Students
Leaders Activity-Universal and - Instill respectunchanging for authority,truth.perseverance, -
Train the duty, students intellect- To espouse consideration, and moralpersonal and
practicality. development. - Robertdevelopment and Maynardinternal Indoor - Act as the
Hutchinstransformation. - Experiment director and - Able to (Science) coach of intellect
discipline - Mortimer J.- To search and respondent. themselves. Adlerdisseminate
thesubjects based - Must deliveron the universal clear lectures. - Will gain the - Jacquesand
immutable ability to develop Maritaintruth. - Coaching in a full “range of critical thinking
rational powers.”- History, Science, skills.Language,Mathematics,Religion.
 9. The laws and principles of Science Works of literature and art Religion HistoryTHE
GREAT IDEAS IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION ARE:
 10. These ideas have thepotential for solvingproblems in any era.THE GREAT IDEAS IN
WESTERN CIVILIZATION ARE:
 11. To seek enduring truths which are constant (not changing), as the natural and human
worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Is to teach ideas that are
everlasting.THE FOCUS
 12. CURRICULUMFocuses on attainingcultural literacy,stressing students’growth in
enduringdisciplines.
 13. CURRICULUM They recommend that students learn from reading and analyzing the
works by history’s finest thinkers and writers.(Perennialists think it is important that
individuals think deeply, analytically, flexibly and imaginatively.)
 14. CURRICULUMPerennialists believe that reading is tobe supplemented with
mutualinvestigations (between the teacherand the student) and minimally-directed
discussions through theSocratic method in order to develop ahistorically oriented
understanding ofconcepts.
 15. CURRICULUMA skilled teacher would keepdiscussions on topic andcorrect errors in
reasoning, butit would be the class, not theteacher, who would reach theconclusions.
 16. ROBERT MAYNARD HUTCHINS- Developed a Great Books program in 1963.The
advocates
 17. The advocates MORTIMER J. ADLER [1902-2001] JACQUES MARITAIN [1882-1973]
 18. ADLER STATES“… our political democracy depends upon the reconstruction of our
schools. Our schools are not turning out young people prepared for the high office and the
duties of citizenship in a democratic republic. Our political institutions cannot thrive, they may
not even survive, if we do not produce a greater number of thinking citizens, from
 19. ADLER STATESwhom some statesmen of the type we had inthe 18th century might
eventually emerge. Weare, indeed, a nation at risk, and nothing butradical reform of our
schools can save usfrom impending disaster…whatever theprice…the price we will pay for
not doing itwill be much greater.”
 20. Hutchins point of view“…new books have been written that have won their place in the
list. Books once thought entitled to belong to it have been superseded; and this process of
change will continue as long as men can think and write. It is the task of every generation to

28. reassess the tradition in which it lives, to discard what it cannot use, and to bring into context
with
 21. Hutchins point of viewthe distant and intermediate past the most recent contributions to
the Great conversation…the West needs to recapture and reemphasize and bring to bear
upon its present problems the wisdom that lies in the works of its greatest thinkers and in the
discussion that they have carried on.
 22. Perennialists think Perennialism believed itwas a solution proposed inresponse to what
wasconsidered by many to bea failing educationalsystem.
Transcript
 1. Realism and its Role in Education
 Teresa Hopson
 XEF 501-Philosophy of Education
 Professor: Dr. Percy Bland
 Cheyney University
 April 4, 2007
 2. Overview of Presentation
o Classical Realism
o Modern Realism
o Contemporary Realism
o Aims of Realism in Education
o Methods of Education
o Curriculum
o Role of the Teacher
o Small activities throughout the presentation
o Conclusion
 3. Does Mars Exist?
 4. Central Thesis
 “ The most centralthread of realism is what can be called the principle or thesis of
independence .”
 Objects exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them.
 (pg. 48)
 5. Difference between Plato and Aristotle The School of Athens, c.1511 by Raphael
o Plato (428-347 B.C.)
o Must study ideas
o Truth and logic through the dialectic discourse
o Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
o Should study matter
o Logic reasoning through his syllogism
 6. Classical Realists
 Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 7. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 “ A tree can exist without matter, but no matter can exist without form.”
 (p. 49)
 8. What might Aristotle ask of the Rock?
 9. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 What is humanity's purpose?

29.  “ Because humans are the only creatures endowed with the ability to think, their
purpose is to use this ability.”
 (p. 50)
 10. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 Aristotle's Golden Mean :
 (a path between extremes)
 The person who follows a true purpose leads a rational life of moderation, avoiding
extremes: the extremes of too little or too much.
 (p. 50)
 11. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 Aristotle's Concept of the Four Causes:
 The Material Cause
 The Formal Cause
 The Efficient Cause
 The Final Cause
 12. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 Like Plato, Aristotle was concerned with logic.
 The logical method he developed was the syllogism , which was his method for
testing the truth of statements such as:
 All men are mortal
 Socrates is a man
 Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (p. 52)
 13. Aristotelian Influence
 Recognizing the need to study nature
 Using logical processes to examine the external world
 Organizing things into hierarchies
 Emphasizing the rational aspects of human nature
 14. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 First encountered the work of Aristotle while studying in Naples
 Attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrines
 Became a leading authority on Aristotle in the Middle Ages
 Author of De Magistro ( On the Teacher ) and Summa Theologica
 Highest good comes through thinking
 We are children of God; our thinking should agree with Christian tenets
 God made it possible to acquire true knowledge so that we may know Him better.
 15. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
 Beliefs:
 -God is the Ultimate Teacher; only God can touch the soul.
 -A teacher can only 'point' the way to knowledge.
 -Teaching is a way to serve humankind; it is part of God's work. “Leading the student
from ignorance to enlightenment is one of the greatest services one person can give
to another.” (p.54)
 -The soul possesses an inner knowledge.
 -The major goal of education was the perfection of the human being and the ultimate
reunion of the soul with God.
 16. Modern Realism
o Francis Bacon
o (1561-1626)
o John Locke
o (1632-1704)
 17. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
o In Novum Organum , he challenged Aristotelian logic.
o Believed science was 'delayed' by Aristotelian thinking

30. o Past thinking flawed due to theological dogmatism and prior assumptions which led to false
deductions (e.g. Galileo)
o Science must be concerned with inquiry and not pre-conceived notions.
o Science was a tool for creating new knowledge.
o Originator of the expression: “Knowledge is Power”
 18. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
o Believed we should examine all previously accepted knowledge;
o We should rid ourselves of four idols that we 'bow down' before:
o Idol of the Den (beliefs due to limited experience)
o Idol of the Tribe (believing because most people believe)
o Idol of the Marketplace (beliefs due to misuse of words)
o Idol of the Theater (subjective beliefs colored by religion and personal philosophy)
 19. John Locke (1632-1704)
o Oxford scholar; medical researcher, physician
o No such things as innate ideas—mind at birth is a tabula rasa
o First great English empiricist
o All ideas are acquired from sources independent of the mind, through experience.
o Authored Some Thoughts Concerning Education
o Influenced the later writings of Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison
(Wikipedia, 2007)
o “ The little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and
lasting consequences." (Locke, 1690, Essay, p. 10)
 20. Contemporary Realism
o Alfred Whitehead (1861-1947)
o Hilary Putnam (1926-)
o Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
o John R. Searle (1932-)
 21. Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell
o Both born in England
o Collaborated on mathematical writings
o Eventually came to teach in the United States
o Both wrote about education
o Co-authored Principia Mathematica
 22. Alfred Whitehead (1861-1947)
o Led to philosophy through the study of mathematics at age 63
o Tried to reconcile some aspects of Idealism with Realism
o Process is central to his philosophy—reality is a process.
o Philosophy is a search for a pattern in the universe: (Can a fish read?)
o The most important things to be learned are ideas .
o Education should be concerned with living ideas—ideas connected to the experience of
learners.
 23. Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
o Student of Alfred Whitehead
o Taught at Cambridge, the University of California
o Imprisoned for pacifist activities
o Founded a school called Beacon Hill
o Two kinds of reality: hard data and soft data
o Education is key to a better way; we should be using our knowledge to erase some of the ills
of society.
 24. Hilary Putnam (1926-)
o Taught at Northwestern, MIT, and finally Harvard
o The changes in science influence the philosophy of realism
o Coined the term 'internal realism'

31. o Physicists have introduced a 'cut' between the observer and the universe. The universe is too
large and too complex for us to understand. Forced to observe universe with our own limited
resources.
o Science will continue to influence the philosophy of realism
 25. John R. Searle (1932-)
o Accepts the traditional view of Realism
o Coined the term 'social reality'
o Does reality in the universe just consist of physical particles and fields of force?
o Social reality created by human consciousness
 26. Aims of Education
o Understanding the material world through inquiry
o A study of science and the scientific method
o A need to know the world in order to ensure survival
o Basic, essential knowledge with a no-nonsense approach
o Intellectually-gifted student is a precious resource
o Should use the Great Books of the Western World
o Adler's Paideia Proposal: schoolshould be a one-track system, general(non-specialized), and
non-vocational
 27. Methods of Education
o Not only facts, but method of arriving at facts
o Emphasis on critical reasoning through observation
o Supports formal ways of teaching
o Children should be given positive rewards (Locke)
o Precision and order: ringing bells, time periods, daily lesson plans, prepackaged curriculum
materials
o Supports accountability and performance-based teaching
o Scientific research and development
o Most recent development: computer technology
 28. Curriculum
 Practical and useful
 Physical activity has educational value (Locke)
 Attention to the complete person (Locke)
 Extensive use of pictures (John Amos Comenius)
 Use of objects in education (Maria Montessori)
 Highly organized and systematic
 29. Role of the Teacher
o Realists emphasize the role of the teacher
o Should teach students what they need to survive
o At the very least, should teach the essentials
o Material presented in a systematic and organized way
o Humanities should be taught in ways that are conducive to cognitive development
 30. Main Activity
 There is a number in your folder.
 The number you have matches the question that you will answer.
 Conclusion
 “ The whole purpose of education is to turn mirrors into windows.”
 Sydney J. Harris (American Journalist 1917-1986 )
Transcript
 1. Naturalism 19 th Century Materialistic View of Reality

32.  2. What is naturalism and why did it arise in the 1800’s?
 3. Key Questions
o How did deism serve as a bridge between theism and atheism? (Sire)
o How does naturalism answer the major worldview questions?
o Who were the major 19 th century figures associated with naturalism?
o What new ideologies reflected the naturalistic perspective?
o What is the current debate between science and faith? (reason and religion)
 4. Historical Influences
o Renaissance humanism
 move toward a more secular (“modern”) outlook
o Naturalism developed out of a growing confidence in human reason produced by the
 The Scientific Revolution – 1600’s
 the Enlightenment- 1700’s
 Empiricism (the scientific method) and mathematics became the model for
determining claims to truth and reality
 5. Renee Descartes’ Influence
o Renee Descartes suggested a division between mind and matter - “faith” and science
Cartesian Dualism
 Objective - matter- explored through science, mathematics, reason
 Subjective - “mind” –intuition, spiritual knowing, etc.
o Descartes saw DOUBT as the path to truth
o – NOT faith
o A growing S KEPTICISM about traditionally held ideas and institutions began to take hold
 6. Early 19 th Century Developments
 7. Utilitarianism (18 th and 19 th centuries)
o Associated with
 Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (British philosophers)
o the idea that decisions should be based on what produces the greatest good for the greatest
number
 Utility – perceived positive outcome
 Pleasure vs. pain - quantification
o “ happiness” – goal
 8. Example: By eliminating one chick the remaining three will have chance at being stronger
and healthier (positive outcome)
 9.
o The McCaughey’s
o decided not to abort
o any of their babies.
o All 7 survived and
o are doing well.
o The doctors had
o recommended not
o carrying all 7 to term.
 10.
 11.
 12. Positivism
o Associated with Auguste Comte
 French philosopher
 “ high priest” of secular humanism
o Positivism proposes that all of society’s problems can be understood and addressed through
the correct application of science
 Secular and materialistic approach (no spiritual component)
o Positivism is the basis for the Social Sciences :sociology, psychology, anthropology, etc.

33.  13.
 14. Naturalism
 15. Charles Darwin
o 19th century British naturalist
o Developed the theory of evolution based on natural selection in the struggle for survival.
 Random processes of adaptation over very long periods of time
o Proposed that all life originated from a single source
o The Origin of Species- published in 1859
o Darwin’s ideas influenced the shift toward the naturalistic (materialistic) worldview
 16. Darwin’s Origin of Species
 17. Darwin in his own words.
o "In the struggle for survival , the fittest win out at the expense of their rivals because
they succeed in adapting themselves best to their environment."
o "The fact of evolution is the backbone of biology, and biology is thus in the peculiar
position of being a science founded on an improved theory , is it then a science or
faith?"
 18.
 19. Charles Darwin is buried in Westminster Abby in London
 20. Darwin’s religious views
o Darwin’s religious views changed over time.
o He might be described as agnostic on the question of God.
o Darwin selected a quote from Sir Francis Bacon to open the original publication of The
Origin of Species .
 21. Introduction to The Origin of Species 1859
o ‘ To conclude, therefore, let no man … think or maintain that a man can search too far or be
too well studied in the book of God’s word , or in the book of God’s works ; divinity or
philosophy; but rather let men endeavor an endless progress or proficience in both .’ Sir
Francis Bacon
 22. How naturalism addresses the major worldview questions.
 23. What is prime reality?
o Matter (external reality) is the ONLY reality
o No metaphysical (supernatural) reality
o The main focus is on empirical science and human rationality in coming to know and
understand reality
 24. What is the nature of external reality (the physical world)?
o The universe is a cause and effect system
o Ordered system – governed by very precise laws –
 Anthropic principle- the system is “fined tuned” to support life
o CLOSED or determined system that evolved through random causes and processes
 Determined system - nothing can reorder the laws of nature- everything is subject to
the laws of nature
 25. What is a human being?
o Humans are complex physical- biological organisms
o Humans have no transcendent nature
 No soul or spirit
 Rational beings
o Human consciousness and the mind are solely part of our physical being (biological and
chemical processes)
 26. What happens when we die?
o Death means “ extinction”
o Humans have no essence that lives on beyond physical existence
o No heaven or hell
o “ Human destiny is an episode between two oblivions.” Nagel

34.  27. How we determine right and wrong?
o Moral choices are related solely to human beings
o Come from human consciousness and reason
o No universal or absolute moral ethic or moral standard
o Morality is influenced by culture, environment, community, family, etc. and is part of the
evolutionary process of survival
 28. How we know what we know?
o Knowledge is strictly related to human reason
 human intelligence
 human experience
o There is no revealed knowledge or truth –
 no special revelation (or general revelation )
o No innate value system –
 no “law of human nature” – Lewis
 29. Human History
o History is a stream of events linked together by cause and effect
o No underlying meaning or purpose
o The process of history is self-activating
 Things just happen- no force, design, or intelligence behind events or processes
 30. Science and Reason As the Path to Truth and Knowledge
 31.
 32.
 33. Impact of naturalism on 19 th century philosophy
 34. Social Darwinism
o English philosopher Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s ideas of natural selection to society
o Believed that nature determined society and was based on the “survival of the fittest”
o The “best” human beings would naturally emerge as superior
o Spencer believed that social programs to assist the poor interfered with the natural order-
natural selection
 By helping weak and inferior humans we would damage the purity of the human race
 35. Herbert Spencer in his own words.
o “ This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that
which Mr. Darwin has called "natural selection, or the preservation of favored races in
the struggle for life."
 36.
 37.
 38.
 39.
 40. Eugenics in North Carolina
 41. Marxism - Economic Theory
o Karl Marx- German philosopher
o Proposed that material forces alone defined history and society
o History was nothing more than the history of “class struggle”
 Two classes-
 Bourgeoisie (upper middle class) OPPRESSION of the proletariat (poorer
working class)
 42. Karl Marx
 43. Marx’s ideas
o Revolution was the key to social and economic change
o Society would only improve with the
 Abolition of private property
 Anti-capitalism – seen as an instrument of oppression
o Religion was nothing but another form of bourgeois oppression of the working class and poor

35.  Marx called religion the “ opiate” (drug) of the people and a tool of oppression
 Atheistic and materialistic worldview
 44. “ All animals are equal but some animals are more equal than others.” Animal Farm by
George Orwell
 45. IMPACT OF MAXISM ON 2Oth CENTURY POLITICAL REVOLUTIONS
o MARXIST RUSSIAN REVOLUTION –
o SOVIET UNION AND EASTERN EUROPE
o MARXIST CHINESES REVOLUTION- MAO
o NORTH KOREA
o VIETNAM
o CUBA
o MAXISTS REGIMES IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA AND AFRICA
 46. Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
o 1856-1939- Vienna, Austria
o Raised in a devout Jewish family
o Studied to become a doctor
o Became a strong voice for naturalism and the secular worldview
o influenced by Darwin
o Work focused on scientifically understanding the nature of the human mind and
consciousness
 47. Freud in his own words
o “ But scientific work is the only road which can lead us to a knowledge of reality….” The
Future of an Illusion
o “ Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our
instinctual desires. “
o “ I have found little that is "good" about human beings on the whole. In my
experience most of them are trash, no matter whether they publicly subscribe to this or that
ethical doctrine or to none at all. That is something that you cannot say aloud, or perhaps even
think. “
 48.
 49. Freud’s work
o The Interpretation of Dreams
 (published in 1900)
 Proposed that humans experience sexual desires and fantasies as infants and children
 Believed that most psychological problems were the result of repressed sexuality
 Freud saw civilization as a product of repressed and sublimated aggression and
sexual drive
 50.
 51. Impact of naturalism on worldview
o Scientific : complete reliance on empiricism
o Complete confidence in human reason
o Driven by the notion of human progress
 (material progress)
o Humanistic in focus
o Secular- no need for God
o Materialistic -material forces as the driving force for life, history, etc.
 52.
 53.
 54.
 55.
 56.
 57.
 58.

36.  59. CURRENT OUTSPOKEN PROPONENTS OF THE NATURALISTIC WORLDVIEW
 60.
 61. RICHARD DAWKINS
o OXFORD UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR
o SCHOLAR IN THE FIELD OF EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
o SEES RELGION AS THE “ROOT OF ALL EVIL”
 62.
 63.
 64.
 65. DAWKINS IN HIS OWN WORDS
o 'Religious people split into three main groups when faced with science. I shall label them the
"know-nothings", the "know-alls", and the "no-contests".
o "Faith is the great cop-out, the great excuse to evade the need to think and evaluate
evidence. Faith is belief in spite of, even perhaps because of, the lack of evidence."
 66. Dawkins in the God Delusion
o The God of the Old Testament is “a misogynistic, homophobic, racist, infanticidal, genocidal,
filicidal, pestilential, megalomaniacal, sado-masochistic, capriciously malevolent bully”.
 67. SAM HARRIS
 68. SAM HARRIS IN HIS OWN WORDS
o “ Religion is nothing more than bad concepts held in place of good ones for all time. It is the
denial—at once full of hope and full of fear—of the vastitude of human ignorance”
o Unfortunately, religion casts more shadows than light on this territory. Rather than find real
reasons for human solidarity, faith offers us a solidarity born of tribal and tribalizing fictions.
 69. CHRISTOPHER HITCHENS
 70. HITCHENS IN HIS OWN WORDS
o “ I will not play with the toys. Don’t bring the toys to my house. Don’t say my children must
play with the toys. Enough with clerical and religious bullying and intimidation.”
o “ Intelligent design? Babies are not born beautiful (says the God of the Bible), they need to be
sawn a bit.”
o “ The mildest criticism of religion is also the most radical and the most devastating one.”
 71. HITCHENS ON THE DEATH OF JERRY FALWELL
o “ The discovery of the carcass of Jerry Falwellon the floor of an obscure office in Virginia
has almost zero significance, except perhaps for two categories of the species labeled
“credulous idiot.”
 72.
 73. SOME PARTING WORDS
 74.
o “ Thus in the very act of trying to prove that God did not exist--in other words, that the whole
of reality was senseless--I found I was forced to assume that one part of reality--namely my
idea of justice--was full of sense. Consequently atheism turns out to be too simple. If the
whole universe has no meaning, we should never have found out that it has no meaning: just
as, if there were no light in the universe and therefore no creatures with eyes, we should never
know it was dark. Dark would be without meaning.” -
 -C.S. Lewis Mere Christianity Book I
 75.
o “ The first gulp from the glass of natural sciences will turn you into an atheist, but at the
bottom of the glass God is waiting for you.” Werner Heisenberg
 (father of quantum mechanics)
 76. “ That's the whole problem with science. You've got a bunch of empiricists trying to
describe things of unimaginable wonder.”