This document is a chapter from a PowerPoint presentation on prejudice that outlines its causes. The chapter discusses how prejudice is an ubiquitous social phenomenon that affects everyone. It examines how our thinking processes like categorization, schemas, and attribution biases can lead to prejudice through mechanisms like illusory correlations, fundamental attribution error, and self-fulfilling prophecies. Economic competition over limited resources as predicted by realistic conflict theory and conformity to social norms are also discussed as causes of prejudice.
OPINION 7.1
Alice Benningfield
1 posts
Re:Module 7 DQ 1
Which theory of the origins of prejudice best describes the relationship between our attitudes and our behavior? Why?
When it comes to describing the relationship between our attitudes and our behavior, I believe that the theory that best describes it, is the social identity theory. According to Smith and DeCoster (1998), most individuals feel that they belong to a group. These groups include family, nationality, social class, school or work teams, among others and are an important source of self-esteem and pride (Smith & DeCoster, 1998). Social identity is strongly related to social norms, which are those behaviors considered appropriately within a social group (Hogg, 2006). When individuals adopt a social identity, they often conform to certain norms of the group. As a result of this conformity, when the group tends to expressively act in a biased way toward other groups, the individual often conforms to the social norms of the group and behaves similarity (Hogg, 2006). However, because people need to justify their behaviors, it is possible that negative attitudes toward an outgroup can also develop as a result of the acquired discriminative behavior; nevertheless, it is worth noting that prejudices against outsiders can be directly transmitted from social norms just as the behaviors do (Smith & DeCoster, 1998). Although the social identity theory might not be the only theory dealing with prejudices that links attitudes with behavior, it does give a framework with a potential explanation on how attitudes can be either directly transmitted from the in-group or developed after behaviors controlled by social norms have been derived.
Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social identity theory. Contemporary social psychological theories, 13, 111-1369.
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (1998). Knowledge acquisition, accessibility, and use in person perception and stereotyping: Simulation with a recurrent connectionist network. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(1), 21-35. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.21
QUESTION FROM THE PROFESSOR
Jodi Swanson
1 posts
Re:Re:Module 7 DQ 2
Really poignant insights here, Elizabeth. I'm particularly intrigued by your attention to how the Contact Hypothesis might apply to the current and ongoing crises with refugee migration. Just as you've noted, some Syrian refugees in particular have assimilated substantially into their new culture in terms of obtaining and maintaining a living, whereas in others, they have serious difficulty doing so. We cannot know the multitude of possible confounding variables influencing these differences, but certainly some (much?) of this must have to do with the political and social culture of the receiving nation--whereas some of this must have to do with the individual ingenuity of the refugees themselves.
Class: After reading Elizabeth's post here, consider when and why migrating peoples are received well versus poorly in some na.
This tutorial corresponds with my Psyc 300 class at American River College and should be completed with Module D Lesson 3 - Lessons in social psychology.
OPINION 7.1
Alice Benningfield
1 posts
Re:Module 7 DQ 1
Which theory of the origins of prejudice best describes the relationship between our attitudes and our behavior? Why?
When it comes to describing the relationship between our attitudes and our behavior, I believe that the theory that best describes it, is the social identity theory. According to Smith and DeCoster (1998), most individuals feel that they belong to a group. These groups include family, nationality, social class, school or work teams, among others and are an important source of self-esteem and pride (Smith & DeCoster, 1998). Social identity is strongly related to social norms, which are those behaviors considered appropriately within a social group (Hogg, 2006). When individuals adopt a social identity, they often conform to certain norms of the group. As a result of this conformity, when the group tends to expressively act in a biased way toward other groups, the individual often conforms to the social norms of the group and behaves similarity (Hogg, 2006). However, because people need to justify their behaviors, it is possible that negative attitudes toward an outgroup can also develop as a result of the acquired discriminative behavior; nevertheless, it is worth noting that prejudices against outsiders can be directly transmitted from social norms just as the behaviors do (Smith & DeCoster, 1998). Although the social identity theory might not be the only theory dealing with prejudices that links attitudes with behavior, it does give a framework with a potential explanation on how attitudes can be either directly transmitted from the in-group or developed after behaviors controlled by social norms have been derived.
Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social identity theory. Contemporary social psychological theories, 13, 111-1369.
Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (1998). Knowledge acquisition, accessibility, and use in person perception and stereotyping: Simulation with a recurrent connectionist network. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74(1), 21-35. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.21
QUESTION FROM THE PROFESSOR
Jodi Swanson
1 posts
Re:Re:Module 7 DQ 2
Really poignant insights here, Elizabeth. I'm particularly intrigued by your attention to how the Contact Hypothesis might apply to the current and ongoing crises with refugee migration. Just as you've noted, some Syrian refugees in particular have assimilated substantially into their new culture in terms of obtaining and maintaining a living, whereas in others, they have serious difficulty doing so. We cannot know the multitude of possible confounding variables influencing these differences, but certainly some (much?) of this must have to do with the political and social culture of the receiving nation--whereas some of this must have to do with the individual ingenuity of the refugees themselves.
Class: After reading Elizabeth's post here, consider when and why migrating peoples are received well versus poorly in some na.
This tutorial corresponds with my Psyc 300 class at American River College and should be completed with Module D Lesson 3 - Lessons in social psychology.
Cognitive schemas can result in stereotypes and contribute to prejudice.
Stereotypes Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Stereotypes based on gender, ethnicity, or occupation are common in many societies.
Then Prejudice has been discussed
SOC350 Cultural DiversityPaige MasseyA person has just start.docxpbilly1
SOC350 Cultural Diversity
Paige Massey
A person has just started a world travel experience, and here they land in Japan where they will be spending a night with a welcoming host family. Everything is fantastic the guest speaks a small bit of Japanese and is able to communicate with them. The guest is invited to a family dinner in their house. As the meal begins the entire family is enjoying the food so much that it is increasing the guest’s biggest pet peeve, slurping the food. Little does the guest know that their pet peeve is a sign of appreciation in the country of Japan. The guest is not participating in the slurping as they were taught that slurping was an activity that was looked down upon by Americans. This is an example of a social faux pas in the country of Japan. Personally a social faux pas that really turns me off is hacking and spitting in public areas. It just creates the heebe jeebes because I was taught social ettique. Can words breach the idea of social ettique, or is it just considered social faux pas?
A social faux pas can be confused with microaggressions. Microaggressions are defined as acts of mostly non physical aggression -- they are common place verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities that can be intentional or unintentional and communicate derogatory slights. Racial microaggressions suggests that people of color endure physical and physiological distress (Robinson-Wood et al., 2018). These microaggressions occur across many different identities such as skin color, body size, mental ability, age, and social class. When a person fits into multiple identities that overlap such as being gay and black, can experience more microaggressions versus a person who is white and gay. There are a lot of words that describe microaggressions, but what actually is an example of microaggressions?
If you have ever walked through Target wearing khakis and a red shirt and automatically being asked to help a customer, you have experienced a microaggression. You were assumed to be in a service role just because of the clothes you were wearing. According to Byrd, some examples of microaggressions include being stared at in the dining hall, asking an Asian person “you must be good at math, can you help me with this problem?”, or when someone merely crosses a street to avoid a person of color (Byrd, 2018). People are not necessarily conscious of these actions. It can be a taught attribute; like crossing the road to avoid a person of color, the person’s parent could have been thinking they are protecting the child from a potentially scary situation like a mugging. The child then learned that they should avoid any colored person on the street. The unconscious nature of humans can lead to some hurtful actions.
Microaggressions can cause a toll on a person’s mind. It can take a lot of thinking to try and make sense of the interpersonal interactions. This characteristic is known as attributional ambiguity. The expenditure of cognitive e.
Cultural Emotions Pain, Hate, Fear, Disgust, Shame, Love OllieShoresna
Cultural Emotions:
Pain, Hate, Fear, Disgust, Shame, Love
Ted Manley, Jr. PhD
Cultural Emotion
PAIN
(Meriam Webster)
1 : punishment ·the pains and penalties of crime
2 a : usually localized physical suffering associated with bodily disorder (such as a disease or an injury) ·the pain of a twisted ankle
also : a basic bodily sensation induced by a noxious stimulus, received by naked nerve endings, characterized by physical discomfort (such as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leading to evasive action ·the pain of bee stings
b : acute mental or emotional distress or suffering : grief
Sociology of Pain
Pain: A Sociological Introduction, Elaine Denny (2016)
Intersection between biology and culture (Medical Model vs Sociology Model of managing pain)
Much pain is experienced as short lived, and self-limiting or easily treated, but for those individuals who live with long term and intractable pain it can cause disruption of life as it is currently lived and alter their expectations of the future.
Sociological research has, for example, shown how men and women approach and experience pain differently, seeking to explain why women more than men report more long term and disabling pain than men. A strength of a sociological understanding of pain is that it encompasses both the interpretive perspective of the person in pain and the structural factors that influence this, offering an explanation of the way that these intersect.
Cultural Emotion
HATE
(Meriam Webster)
Intense hostility and aversion usually deriving from fear, anger, or sense of injury.
b : extreme dislike or disgust : antipathy, loathing.
The Sociology of Hate
Stereotypes
Cognitive
Prejudice
Affective
Discrimination
Behavioral
Gordon Allport (1954?:1958; 1979): The Nature of Prejudice
“Open-mindedness is considered to be a virtue. But, strictly speaking, it cannot occur. A new experience must be redacted into old categories. We cannot handle each even freshly in its own right (Allport, 1954, p. 19)
5
The Big Three
Three main topics in the psychology of racism: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Stereotypes:
Stereotypes
Stereotypes categorize people according to social factors
Definition: “A cognitive structure that contains the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human group” (Hamilton & Trolier, 1986, p. 133).
Stereotypes are necessary
The content of stereotypes can be the problem
Outcome
Most insidious stereotypes = create, maintain, or strengthen social hierarchy
Outcomes of racial/ ethnic stereotypes
6
Categorize based on age, gender, social role, physical appearance, or relation to self
Definition: “A cognitive structure that contains the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human group” (Hamilton & Trolier, 1986, p. 133).
We develop “Naïve theories” of social action (Tajfel & Forgas, 2000)
Used for complex social events that we can’t understand fully
Develop simplistic sy ...
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)Cognitive processes store insimisterchristen
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)
Cognitive processes store information into the memory affects their judgement and behavior towards others from different backgrounds. When an individual is raised with different perspectives poured into them, they take on these perspectives and incorporate them into how they view life. According to Amodio (2014), prejudice stems from a mechanism of survival, built on cognitive systems that ‘structure’ the physical world, its function in modern society is complex and its effects are often causes damage. Many of these instances are not intentional, its more that it was how their brain was wired. The impact of culture on prejudice makes it common for individuals to normalize prejudice, because it was approved or promoted in their culture. According to Uhlmann (2013), Prejudices are often a way for a group of higher social status to explain and rationalize their privilege position in society. This is a main stance to consider with the gap of benefits and opportunities that are available to those of the minority (Or as they labeled). Once stereotypes and prejudice are formed, they become self perpetuating because they grow stronger inside the mind, similarly to the information we choose to study and gain insight on. The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive and emotional processes (Branscombe, 2016). By rewiring these processes, the root can be diminished.
4-1 KG (200 words and one reference)
A person's beliefs and expectations regarding a particular group constitute the cognitive component of the prejudicial attitude. The cognitive approach, (cognitive theory of prejudice), suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments and behavior toward target group members. An example of this is believing that a product marketed by a celebrity is more valuable. While people like to believe that they are rational and logical, the fact is that people are continually under the influence of cognitive biases. These biases distort thinking, influence beliefs, and sway the decisions and judgments people make daily. These biases happen because we can't evaluate every detail and event when forming thoughts and opinions. Because of this, we often rely on mental shortcuts that speed up our ability to make judgments, but sometimes lead to bias ( Saposnik, Redelmeier, Ruff & Tobler 2016). The psychological bases for prejudice are people's values, the ways they see themselves and others, their sense of social identity, and social norms that define who is included in or excluded from social groups. The cognitive dimensions of prejudice relate to issues such as stereotypes and beliefs about outgroup members. Stereotype measures involve the endorsement of negative stereotypes about members of the outgroup. The source of prejudices comes from social differences, conformity, frustration-aggr ...
Cognitive schemas can result in stereotypes and contribute to prejudice.
Stereotypes Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Stereotypes based on gender, ethnicity, or occupation are common in many societies.
Then Prejudice has been discussed
SOC350 Cultural DiversityPaige MasseyA person has just start.docxpbilly1
SOC350 Cultural Diversity
Paige Massey
A person has just started a world travel experience, and here they land in Japan where they will be spending a night with a welcoming host family. Everything is fantastic the guest speaks a small bit of Japanese and is able to communicate with them. The guest is invited to a family dinner in their house. As the meal begins the entire family is enjoying the food so much that it is increasing the guest’s biggest pet peeve, slurping the food. Little does the guest know that their pet peeve is a sign of appreciation in the country of Japan. The guest is not participating in the slurping as they were taught that slurping was an activity that was looked down upon by Americans. This is an example of a social faux pas in the country of Japan. Personally a social faux pas that really turns me off is hacking and spitting in public areas. It just creates the heebe jeebes because I was taught social ettique. Can words breach the idea of social ettique, or is it just considered social faux pas?
A social faux pas can be confused with microaggressions. Microaggressions are defined as acts of mostly non physical aggression -- they are common place verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities that can be intentional or unintentional and communicate derogatory slights. Racial microaggressions suggests that people of color endure physical and physiological distress (Robinson-Wood et al., 2018). These microaggressions occur across many different identities such as skin color, body size, mental ability, age, and social class. When a person fits into multiple identities that overlap such as being gay and black, can experience more microaggressions versus a person who is white and gay. There are a lot of words that describe microaggressions, but what actually is an example of microaggressions?
If you have ever walked through Target wearing khakis and a red shirt and automatically being asked to help a customer, you have experienced a microaggression. You were assumed to be in a service role just because of the clothes you were wearing. According to Byrd, some examples of microaggressions include being stared at in the dining hall, asking an Asian person “you must be good at math, can you help me with this problem?”, or when someone merely crosses a street to avoid a person of color (Byrd, 2018). People are not necessarily conscious of these actions. It can be a taught attribute; like crossing the road to avoid a person of color, the person’s parent could have been thinking they are protecting the child from a potentially scary situation like a mugging. The child then learned that they should avoid any colored person on the street. The unconscious nature of humans can lead to some hurtful actions.
Microaggressions can cause a toll on a person’s mind. It can take a lot of thinking to try and make sense of the interpersonal interactions. This characteristic is known as attributional ambiguity. The expenditure of cognitive e.
Cultural Emotions Pain, Hate, Fear, Disgust, Shame, Love OllieShoresna
Cultural Emotions:
Pain, Hate, Fear, Disgust, Shame, Love
Ted Manley, Jr. PhD
Cultural Emotion
PAIN
(Meriam Webster)
1 : punishment ·the pains and penalties of crime
2 a : usually localized physical suffering associated with bodily disorder (such as a disease or an injury) ·the pain of a twisted ankle
also : a basic bodily sensation induced by a noxious stimulus, received by naked nerve endings, characterized by physical discomfort (such as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leading to evasive action ·the pain of bee stings
b : acute mental or emotional distress or suffering : grief
Sociology of Pain
Pain: A Sociological Introduction, Elaine Denny (2016)
Intersection between biology and culture (Medical Model vs Sociology Model of managing pain)
Much pain is experienced as short lived, and self-limiting or easily treated, but for those individuals who live with long term and intractable pain it can cause disruption of life as it is currently lived and alter their expectations of the future.
Sociological research has, for example, shown how men and women approach and experience pain differently, seeking to explain why women more than men report more long term and disabling pain than men. A strength of a sociological understanding of pain is that it encompasses both the interpretive perspective of the person in pain and the structural factors that influence this, offering an explanation of the way that these intersect.
Cultural Emotion
HATE
(Meriam Webster)
Intense hostility and aversion usually deriving from fear, anger, or sense of injury.
b : extreme dislike or disgust : antipathy, loathing.
The Sociology of Hate
Stereotypes
Cognitive
Prejudice
Affective
Discrimination
Behavioral
Gordon Allport (1954?:1958; 1979): The Nature of Prejudice
“Open-mindedness is considered to be a virtue. But, strictly speaking, it cannot occur. A new experience must be redacted into old categories. We cannot handle each even freshly in its own right (Allport, 1954, p. 19)
5
The Big Three
Three main topics in the psychology of racism: Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Stereotypes:
Stereotypes
Stereotypes categorize people according to social factors
Definition: “A cognitive structure that contains the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human group” (Hamilton & Trolier, 1986, p. 133).
Stereotypes are necessary
The content of stereotypes can be the problem
Outcome
Most insidious stereotypes = create, maintain, or strengthen social hierarchy
Outcomes of racial/ ethnic stereotypes
6
Categorize based on age, gender, social role, physical appearance, or relation to self
Definition: “A cognitive structure that contains the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human group” (Hamilton & Trolier, 1986, p. 133).
We develop “Naïve theories” of social action (Tajfel & Forgas, 2000)
Used for complex social events that we can’t understand fully
Develop simplistic sy ...
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)Cognitive processes store insimisterchristen
4-1 LL (200 words and one reference)
Cognitive processes store information into the memory affects their judgement and behavior towards others from different backgrounds. When an individual is raised with different perspectives poured into them, they take on these perspectives and incorporate them into how they view life. According to Amodio (2014), prejudice stems from a mechanism of survival, built on cognitive systems that ‘structure’ the physical world, its function in modern society is complex and its effects are often causes damage. Many of these instances are not intentional, its more that it was how their brain was wired. The impact of culture on prejudice makes it common for individuals to normalize prejudice, because it was approved or promoted in their culture. According to Uhlmann (2013), Prejudices are often a way for a group of higher social status to explain and rationalize their privilege position in society. This is a main stance to consider with the gap of benefits and opportunities that are available to those of the minority (Or as they labeled). Once stereotypes and prejudice are formed, they become self perpetuating because they grow stronger inside the mind, similarly to the information we choose to study and gain insight on. The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive and emotional processes (Branscombe, 2016). By rewiring these processes, the root can be diminished.
4-1 KG (200 words and one reference)
A person's beliefs and expectations regarding a particular group constitute the cognitive component of the prejudicial attitude. The cognitive approach, (cognitive theory of prejudice), suggests that prejudice is a function of cognitive processes where stereotypic information about social groups, stored in memory, is automatically activated and affects people’s judgments and behavior toward target group members. An example of this is believing that a product marketed by a celebrity is more valuable. While people like to believe that they are rational and logical, the fact is that people are continually under the influence of cognitive biases. These biases distort thinking, influence beliefs, and sway the decisions and judgments people make daily. These biases happen because we can't evaluate every detail and event when forming thoughts and opinions. Because of this, we often rely on mental shortcuts that speed up our ability to make judgments, but sometimes lead to bias ( Saposnik, Redelmeier, Ruff & Tobler 2016). The psychological bases for prejudice are people's values, the ways they see themselves and others, their sense of social identity, and social norms that define who is included in or excluded from social groups. The cognitive dimensions of prejudice relate to issues such as stereotypes and beliefs about outgroup members. Stereotype measures involve the endorsement of negative stereotypes about members of the outgroup. The source of prejudices comes from social differences, conformity, frustration-aggr ...
part 2 Generalized Anxiety Disorders and Phobias.pdfTracyLewis47
Abnormal Psychology includes the study of Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Phobias. This presentation provides an introduction to GAD and outlines the diagnostic criteria from the DSM5.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
3. Ubiquitous
• What does ubiquitous mean?
Ubiquitous means being everywhere
especially at the same time (adjective).
Source: www.dictionary.reference.com
The ubiquitous fog on the western highway
cause a traffic accident.
7. Prejudice
Over the past 30 years, blatant
discrimination has been reduced;
however, prejudice still exists in
subtle -- and sometimes blatant --
forms.
8. Prejudice
• Prejudice and Self-Esteem
Being a member of an oppressed group
can lower a person’s self-esteem.
9. Prejudice
• A Progress Report
Real progress has been made for women
and minorities in the last few decades.
However, it would be a mistake to think
that prejudice is no longer a serious
problem in the United States, Belize,
Canada, Mexico and other countries.
11. Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination
• Prejudice: The Affective Component
Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude
toward a distinguishable group of people,
based solely on their membership in that
group.
12. Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination
• Prejudice: The Affective Component
Prejudiced people direct their prejudice
towards members of the group as a whole,
ignoring distinguishing characteristics.
13. Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination
• Stereotypes: The Cognitive
Component
A stereotype is a generalization about a
group of people in which identical
characteristics are assigned to virtually all
members of the group, regardless of actual
variation among the members.
14. Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination
• Stereotypes: The Cognitive
Component
Stereotypes are not necessarily
emotionally laden and do not necessarily
lead to discrimination. However, the
potential abuse due to stereotyping can be
blatant.
15. Prejudice, Stereotyping and
Discrimination
• Discrimination: The Behavioral
Component
Discrimination is an unjustified negative or
harmful action towards a member of a
group, simply because of his or her
membership in that group.
17. What Causes Prejudice?
Whether or not there is a biological
root to prejudice, as evolutionary
psychologists would expect, is
unknown; it is clear that prejudice
occurs between biologically similar
people who hold different beliefs.
18. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
One explanation for prejudice is that it is the
inevitable byproduct of information
processing. Examples of mental processes
include categorization, the use of schemas
and heuristics, and faulty memory
processes.
19. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
The first step in prejudice is the creation of
groups. Once we have mental categories,
we group stimuli into them by similarities,
downplaying differences between
members of a group and exaggerating
differences between members of different
groups.
20. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
In-group bias is the especially positive
feelings and special treatment we reserve
for people we have defined as part of our
in-group.
21. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Tajfel (1982) postulates that the underlying
motive behind in-group bias is self-esteem
maintenance and enhancement.
22. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Another consequence of social
categorization is out-group homogeneity,
the perception that those in the out-group
are more similar to each other than they
really are, as well as more similar than the
members of the in-group are.
23. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
There are two reasons why it is almost
impossible to get a person holding a deep-
seated prejudice to change his or her
mind.
First, it is primarily the emotional aspect of
attitudes that makes a prejudiced person
hard to argue with.
24. Second, people with strong prejudices
have a firmly established schema for the
target group(s). Thus, the use of logic
fails to reduce prejudice.
25. • The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Studies have shown that over 30 years,
stereotypes regarding established groups
have remained fairly stable, becoming
somewhat less negative over time.
26. Devine (1989) developed a theory about
how stereotypical and prejudiced beliefs
affect information processing.
Her theory is based on the distinction
between automatic and controlled
information processing.
27. • The Way We Think: Social Cognition
According to her theory, when we process
information about another, first the
stereotypes that we know about are
automatically triggered, then in the
controlled process we decide whether or
not to accept the stereotype.
28. According to Fazio and colleagues (1995),
much variability exists in people’s
automatic processing of negative
stereotypes.
29. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
They suggest that there are three kinds of
people: (1) those who do not have an
automatic negative reaction to members
of a given group, (2) those who do have
an automatic negative reaction but have
no problems expressing their prejudice,
and (3) those who have an automatic
negative reaction but want to suppress it.
30. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
Bargh et al. (1995) have shown that
automatic prejudice can be triggered
when certain ideas about the target group
come to mind.
32. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Think: Social Cognition
An illusory correlation is the tendency to
see relationships, or correlations, between
events that are actually unrelated.
Illusory correlations are most likely to
occur when the events or people are
distinctive or conspicuous; minority group
members are so by definition.
33. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
People’s tendencies to engage in
attributional biases, like the fundamental
attribution error, increase the pervasiveness
and persistence of stereotypes. When
dispositional attributions about an entire
group of people are made, it is called the
ultimate attribution error.
34. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
The Bell Curve ignited the latest chapter in
an old debate on whether or not there are
racial differences in intelligence.
The question to consider is whether the
reason for differences is dispositional or
situational.
35. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
Steele and Aronson have shown that at least
one major contributing factor is situational.
They define stereotype threat as the
apprehension experienced by members of a
minority group that their behavior might
confirm a cultural stereotype.
36. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
When an out-group member behaves in a
way that disconfirms our stereotypes, we
are likely to make a situational attribution
for his or her performance, leaving the
stereotype intact.
37. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
Blaming the victim is the tendency to
blame individuals for their victimization;
ironically, it is motivated by a desire to see
the world as a fair and just place where
people get what they deserve.
38. What Causes Prejudice?
• How We Assign Meaning:
Attributional Biases
The self-fulfilling prophecy is the case
whereby people (a) have an expectation
about what another person is like, which (b)
influences how they act toward that person,
which (c) causes that person to behave in a
way consistent with people’s original
expectations.
40. What Causes Prejudice?
• Prejudice and Economic Competition:
Realistic Conflict Theory
Realistic Conflict Theory is the theory that
limited resources lead to conflict between
groups and result in increased prejudice
and discrimination.
41. What Causes Prejudice?
• Prejudice and Economic Competition:
Realistic Conflict Theory
Several historical studies document that
prejudice, discrimination, and violence
against out-group members is positively
correlated with the scarcity of jobs or
other resources. Correlational and
experimental data exist that support group
conflict theory.
42. What Causes Prejudice?
• Prejudice and Economic Competition:
Realistic Conflict Theory
Scapegoating is the tendency for
individuals, when frustrated or unhappy, to
displace aggression onto groups that are
disliked, visible, and relatively powerless.
43. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Conform: Normative
Rules
Through both explicit and implicit
socialization, we are trained in the norms
of our culture.
Stereotypes and prejudiced attitudes are
part of this normative package.
44. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Conform: Normative
Rules
Institutionalized racism refers to the racist
attitudes that are held by the vast majority
of people because we live in a society
where stereotypes and discrimination are
the norm.
45. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Conform: Normative
Rules
Institutionalized sexism refers to the
sexist attitudes that are held by the vast
majority of us for the same reason.
46. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Conform: Normative
Rules
In societies in which racism and sexism
are institutionalized, normative conformity
leads to the tendency to go along with the
group in order to fulfill their expectations
and gain acceptance.
47. What Causes Prejudice?
• The Way We Conform: Normative
Rules
Modern racism is prejudice revealed in subtle,
indirect ways because people have learned to
hide their prejudiced attitudes in order to
avoid being labeled as racist. This type of
racism is shown when people outwardly act
unprejudiced while inwardly maintain
prejudiced attitudes.
50. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• The Contact Hypothesis
The contact hypothesis is the idea that
merely bringing members of different
groups into contact with each other will
erode prejudice.
51. • When Contact Reduces Prejudice:
Six Conditions
Allport (1954) suggested that six
conditions are necessary for intergroup
contact to reduce prejudice.
52. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• When Contact Reduces Prejudice:
Six Conditions
1. Mutual interdependence
2. A common goal
3. Equal status of group members
4. Having informal interpersonal contact
5. Having multiple contacts with several members of
the outgroup
6. When social norms are in place that promote
equality
53. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• When Contact Reduces Prejudice:
Six Conditions
A situation where two or more groups need
each other and must depend on each other
to accomplish a goal that is important to
them defines mutual interdependence.
55. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• Why Does Jigsaw Work?
A jigsaw classroom is a classroom setting
designed to reduce prejudice and raise the
self-esteem of children by placing them in
small desegregated groups and making
each child dependent on the other children
in the group to learn the course material
and do well in the class.
56. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• Why Does Jigsaw Work?
One reason for the effectiveness of the
jigsaw classroom is that it succeeds in
breaking down in-group versus out-group
perceptions. This learning environment also
places people in a “favor-doing” situation
and leads them to like the people they help.
In addition, the jigsaw classroom works
because it fosters empathy.
57. How Can Prejudice Be Reduced?
• Why Does Jigsaw Work?
The cooperative learning movement has
become a major force in the field of public
education, and provides a powerful tool in
the battle against prejudice. Unfortunately,
the spread of cooperative learning is
gradual.
59. Study Questions
How is prejudice different from
discrimination? What are the
three components of a
prejudiced attitude?
60. Study Questions
How do gender stereotypes affect
achievement attributions of men’s
and women’s successes and
failures? What type of attributions
are made by individuals and society
for the successes of men compared
to those of women?
62. Study Questions
What role does human thinking
have in the causes of prejudice?
How does social categorization
increase prejudice? What are
motives behind the in-group
bias?
63. Study Questions
What is the out-group
homogeneity effect and how
does it contribute to prejudice?
64. Study Questions
Focusing on the affective and
cognitive components of
prejudice, why is it difficult to
change prejudice?
65. Study Questions
What does Devine’s (1989) two-
step model of cognitive
processing explain about
prejudice? What has research
by Fazio and Bargh and their
respective colleagues
discovered about the variability
in people’s automatic prejudice?
66. Study Questions
What is an illusory correlation?
What factors lead to the
formation of this type of
correlation and how does this
process promote prejudice?
67. Study Questions
What is the ultimate attribution
error? What are the
consequences of committing
this error?
73. Study Questions
According to social learning
theory, what maintains and
perpetuates prejudice and
discrimination at the societal
level? What forms does societal
prejudice and discrimination
take?
74. Study Questions
How is the expression of racism in
today’s society different from its
expression fifty years ago?
What are findings that support
modern racism? How have
research techniques adapted to
study this “new” racism?
75. Study Questions
What are effective strategies to
reduce prejudice? What
characteristics of intergroup
contact are necessary for the
contact hypothesis to reduce
prejudice and discrimination?
76. Study Questions
What are the characteristics of the
jigsaw classroom? What are the
benefits of the jigsaw
classroom?
