2. Prejudice
Negative emotional responses based on group membership.
Discrimination
Differential (usually negative) behaviors directed toward members of different social
groups.
Discriminatory treatment can be based on many different category memberships
including age, race, marital status, occupation, gender, religion, language spoken, sexual
orientation, and body weight.
3. How Members of Different Groups
Perceive Inequality
There are substantial group differences in the perceived legitimacy of prejudice and
discrimination, and in how much progress is thought to have been made toward
their reduction, depending on whether one is a member of the group targeted or
the group perpetrating the unequal treatment.
For example, white and black Americans show substantial differences in how much
discrimination and racial inequality they perceive to be present in employment
wages, Furthermore, whites perceive less racism in many everyday events than do
blacks
4. Risk averse
We weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains. As a result,
we respond more negatively to changes that are framed as potential losses than
positively to changes that are framed as potential gains.
5. Stereotypes
Beliefs about social groups in terms of the traits or characteristics that they are
believed to share. Stereotypes are cognitive frameworks that influence the
processing of social information.
Gender stereotypes
Stereotypes concerning the traits possessed by females and males and that
distinguish the two genders from each other.
6.
7. Glass ceiling
Barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified females
from advancing to top-level positions.
A final barrier that prevents women, as a group, from reaching top positions in the
workplace.
8. Glass cliff effect
Choosing women for leadership positions that are risky, precarious, or when the
outcome is more likely to result in failure.
Researchers found that when people were presented with an equally qualified male
and female candidate, the female was selected significantly more often when the
position was risky and the male candidate was selected more often when the
situation was not risky
Objectification of females
Regarding them as mere bodies that exist for the pleasure of others.
9. Token women
“Token women" as women who may be unqualified to hold jobs in, for example, the
male- dominated building trades and are hired "primarily because they are women.“
10. CONSEQUENCES OF TOKEN WOMEN IN
HIGH PLACES
In both the open and token conditions, women reported believing in meritocracy
more than in the closed condition.
Likewise, in both the open and token conditions, the participants reported greater
identification with the organization than in the closed condition. This means that
token conditions—to the same degree as when there is equal gender
representation—encourages women to maintain their faith that they can move up
and engenders allegiance to organizations where they are substantially
underrepresented.
11. Tokenism
“The practice of doing something (such as hiring a person who belongs to a minority
group) only to prevent criticism and give the appearance that people are being treated
fairly.” -Merriam Webster
12. Shifting standards
When we use one group as the standard but shift to use another group as the
comparison standard when judging members of a different group.
The shifting standards argument suggests that stereotyped categories (e.g., race
and sex) should interact with type of response scale to affect judgments.
Specifically, objective scales should reveal that Whites and women are perceived as
higher in verbal ability than Blacks and men, respectively.
13. Subjective scales
Response scales that are open to interpretation and lack an externally grounded
referent, including scales labeled from good to bad or weak to strong. They are
said to be subjective because they can take on different meanings depending on
the group membership of the person being evaluated.
Objective scales
Those with measurement units that are tied to external reality so that they mean
the same thing regardless of category membership (e.g., dollars earned, feet and
inches, chosen or rejected).
15. Subtype
A subset of a group that is not consistent with the stereotype of the group as a
whole.
Stereotypes lead us to attend to information that is consistent with them, and
interpret inconsistent information in ways that allow us to maintain our stereotypes.
When a person’s actions are strongly stereotype-discrepant, we subtype that
person as a special case that proves the rule and do not change our stereotypes.
16. Essence
Typically some biologically based feature that is used to distinguish one group and
another; frequently can serve as justification for the differential treatment of those
groups.
Minimal groups
When we are categorized into different groups based on some “minimal” criteria
we tend to favor others who are categorized in the same group as ourselves
compared to those categorized as members of a different group.
17. Incidental feelings
Those feelings induced separately or before a target is encountered; as a result,
those feelings are irrelevant to the group being judged but can still affect
judgments of the target.
Implicit associations
Links between group membership and trait associations or evaluations that the
perceiver may be unaware of. They can be activated automatically based on the
group membership of a target.
Threat
It primarily concerns fear that our group interests will be undermined or our self-
esteem is in jeopardy.
18. Zero-sum outcomes
Those that only one person or group can have. So, if one group gets them, the
other group can’t.
Realistic conflict theory
The realistic conflict theory is a psychological theory of prejudice that suggests
competition for rare resources as the reason for conflict between groups. Group
members are more likely to perceive their group as the better one and to view
intergroup differences as evidence of the other group’s inferiority.
19. Superordinate goals
Those that can only be achieved by cooperation between groups.
Social identity theory
A theory concerned with the consequences of perceiving ourselves as a member of
a social group and identifying with it.
20. Discrimination: Prejudice in Action
Discrimination refers to the unfavorable treatment or negative actions directed
toward members of disliked groups. Whether discrimination will be expressed or
not depends on the perceived norms or acceptability of doing so.
21. Modern racism
More subtle beliefs than deliberate feelings of superiority. It consists primarily of
thinking minorities are seeking and receiving more benefits than they deserve and
a denial that discrimination affects their outcomes.
Bona fide pipeline
The bona fide pipeline is a method used to obtain affect and attitude towards
various objects or ideas.
22. Collective guilt
The emotion that can be experienced when we are confronted with the harmful
actions done by our in-group against an out-group. It is most likely to be
experienced when the harmful actions are seen as illegitimate.
Moral disengagement
No longer seeing sanctioning as necessary for perpetrating harm that has been
legitimized.
23. Social learning view (of
prejudice)
The view that prejudice is acquired through direct and vicarious experiences in
much the same manner as other attitudes.
Contact hypothesis
The view that increased contact between members of various social groups can be
effective in reducing prejudice between them.
The contact hypothesis suggests that bringing previously segregated groups into
contact can reduce prejudice; especially when the contact is with out-group
members who are seen as typical of their group, the contact is seen as important,
results in cross-group friendships, and anxiety about interacting with out-group
members is reduced.
24. Recategorization
Shifts in the boundaries between our in-group (“us”) and some out-group (“them”).
As a result of such recategorization, people formerly viewed as out-group members
may now be viewed as belonging to the In-group and consequently are viewed
more positively.
Common in-group identity model
A theory suggesting that to the extent individuals in different groups view
themselves as members of a single social entity, intergroup bias will be reduced.
