The document summarizes portal hypertension and portal vein system. It describes that the portal vein is formed by the union of the splenic and superior mesenteric veins, running within the lesser omentum and posterior to the common bile duct and hepatic artery. Portal hypertension is defined as a hepatic venous pressure gradient greater than 5 mmHg and can be caused by pre-hepatic, intra-hepatic, or post-hepatic issues. Complications of portal hypertension include splenomegaly, ascites, and esophageal varices. Treatment involves pharmacological therapy, endoscopic procedures like band ligation, and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt placement.
Approach to Management of Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) BleedingArun Vasireddy
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is gastrointestinal bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit (hematemesis) or in altered form in the stool (melena). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of insufficient circulating blood volume and shock. As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a medical emergency and typically requires hospital care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by peptic ulcers, gastric erosions, esophageal varices, and some rarer causes such as gastric cancer.
The initial assessment includes measurement of the blood pressure and heart rate, as well as blood tests to determine hemoglobin concentration. In significant bleeding, fluid replacement is often required, as well as blood transfusion, before the source of bleeding can be determined by endoscopy of the upper digestive tract with an esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Depending on the source, endoscopic therapy can be applied to reduce rebleeding risk. Specific medical treatments (such as proton pump inhibitors for peptic ulcer disease) or procedures (such as TIPS for variceal hemorrhage) may be used. Recurrent or refractory bleeding may lead to need for surgery, although this has become uncommon as a result of improved endoscopic and medical treatment.
esophageal varices are the second most common cause of upper GI bleed after PUD.These are actually the dilated veins which occur secondary to increase in the pressure in the portal circulation called as Portal Hypertension..
Approach to Management of Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) BleedingArun Vasireddy
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding is gastrointestinal bleeding in the upper gastrointestinal tract, commonly defined as bleeding arising from the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum. Blood may be observed in vomit (hematemesis) or in altered form in the stool (melena). Depending on the severity of the blood loss, there may be symptoms of insufficient circulating blood volume and shock. As a result, upper gastrointestinal bleeding is considered a medical emergency and typically requires hospital care for urgent diagnosis and treatment. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding can be caused by peptic ulcers, gastric erosions, esophageal varices, and some rarer causes such as gastric cancer.
The initial assessment includes measurement of the blood pressure and heart rate, as well as blood tests to determine hemoglobin concentration. In significant bleeding, fluid replacement is often required, as well as blood transfusion, before the source of bleeding can be determined by endoscopy of the upper digestive tract with an esophagogastroduodenoscopy. Depending on the source, endoscopic therapy can be applied to reduce rebleeding risk. Specific medical treatments (such as proton pump inhibitors for peptic ulcer disease) or procedures (such as TIPS for variceal hemorrhage) may be used. Recurrent or refractory bleeding may lead to need for surgery, although this has become uncommon as a result of improved endoscopic and medical treatment.
esophageal varices are the second most common cause of upper GI bleed after PUD.These are actually the dilated veins which occur secondary to increase in the pressure in the portal circulation called as Portal Hypertension..
Definitions of GI bleeding
GI Bleeding include Upper and Lower of GIB
Causes of GI bleeding
Pathogenesis of GI bleeding
Diagnosis of GI bleeding
Clinical of GI bleeding
Management of GI bleeding
Recommendation of GI bleeding
Clinical guideline of GI bleeding
Information about Management of Appendicular Lump by Dr Dhaval Mangukiya.
Details of Appendicular Lump, Basic to Above the Basics, Incidence, Safe Approach Interval Laparoscopy, Early Surgery etc.
https://drdhavalmangukiya.com/
http://www.youtube.com/c/DrDhavalMangukiyaGastrosurgeonSurat
https://gastrosurgerysurat.blogspot.com/
Definitions of GI bleeding
GI Bleeding include Upper and Lower of GIB
Causes of GI bleeding
Pathogenesis of GI bleeding
Diagnosis of GI bleeding
Clinical of GI bleeding
Management of GI bleeding
Recommendation of GI bleeding
Clinical guideline of GI bleeding
Information about Management of Appendicular Lump by Dr Dhaval Mangukiya.
Details of Appendicular Lump, Basic to Above the Basics, Incidence, Safe Approach Interval Laparoscopy, Early Surgery etc.
https://drdhavalmangukiya.com/
http://www.youtube.com/c/DrDhavalMangukiyaGastrosurgeonSurat
https://gastrosurgerysurat.blogspot.com/
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
2. The portal vein is formed in
front of IVC and behind the
neck of the pancreas ( at the
level of 2nd lumber vertebra )
by union of the splenic & SMV.
About 5-8cm in length and
1cm in diameter in adults and
devoid of valves
It runs with in the free border
of lesser omentum as a part of
Porta hepatis posterior to CBD
and Hepatic artery
3. Tributaries
Its main tributaries are :
The coronary (Lt gastric) vein.
Pyloric vein.
Cystic vein.
Pancreaticodudenal vein.
Ligamentum teres (umbilical
vein)
5. Site Portal Vein tributaries Systemic veins
Gastroesophage
al junction
Left Gastric (Coronary)
Vein
And Short Gastric Veins
(Submucosal veins)
Lower esophageal veins that
drain into Azygos and
Accessory Hemiazygos veins
Rectum Superior rectal veins that
drain into Inferior
mesenteric vein
Middle and Inferior rectal veins
that drain into Internal Iliac and
pudendal veins
Umbilicus Persistant small branches
of Left Portal vein running
thrugh ligamentum teres
Periumbilical branches of
superior and inferior epigastric
veins
Bare area of
liver
Intraparenchymal branches
of Right Portal vein
Veins of Sappey
Retroperitoneal veind draining
into Azygos and Hemiazygos
veins
Retroperitoneum Colonic veins near hepatic
and spleenic flexures
Retroperitoneal veins of
Retzius
Porto Systemic Anastamoses
6. Portal Hypertension
Normal Portal venous pressure 5-10 mm Hg
Defined as Increase in portal venous pressure above the
normal limit
Defined as a Hepatic venous pressure gradient > 5mm Hg
7. Hepatic Venous Pressure Gradient(HVPG) = Wedged Hepatic
Venous Pressure(WHVP) – Free Hepatic Venous
Pressure(FHVP)
It is a measure of portal sinusoidal pressure and is obtained by
catheterization of a hepatic vein via the jugular or femoral vein.
Normal HVPG value is 3-5 mm Hg
HVPG
12. Portal hypertension in cirrhosis results from
increased resistance to portal flow at the level of the sinusoids
(Sinusoidal)
compression of central veins by perivenular fibrosis and
expanded parenchymal nodules (Post Sinusoidal)
13. Pathophysiology
Block to portal flow leads to increased portal pressure
Splanchnic vascular bed response
Initial increased vasoconstrictor response
Seondarily vasodilator response dominates which
increases splanchnic blood flow
Development of collaterals b/w portal and systemic circulations
Plasma volume expansion occurs with development of
systemic hyperdynamic circulation
15. Important presenting features of Portal HTN are
Spleenomegaly
Esophageal Varices
Ascites
In severe cases, can progress to Hepatorenal Syndrome,
Hepatopulmonary syndrome and Hepatic encephalopathy.
16. Spleenomegaly
Congestive splenomegaly is common and most consistent
finding in patients with portal hypertension.
It is Congestive Spleenomegaly
Patients may develop thrombocytopenia and Leukopenia
Splenomegaly itself usually requires no specific treatment
17. Ascites
Increased movement of intravascular fluid into the space of
Disse, caused by sinusoidal hypertension and
hypoalbuminemia.
Leakage of fluid from the hepatic interstitium into the peritoneal
cavity.(blockage of lymph radicles)
Renal retention of sodium and water due to secondary
hyperaldosteronism
18. Present with distended abdomen or breathlessness in massive
ascites
Careful differentiation of other causes of ascites is needed
Diagnostic paracentesis
Serum Ascites to Albumin Gradient (SAAG) > 1.1gm/dl, If
<1gm/dl then other causes are considered
19. Treatment of Ascites is mainly by Diuretics and dietary Sodium
restriction(<2gm/day)
In Ascites refractory to medical therapy therapeutic large
volume paracentesis is done
If ascites progresses despite LVP, TIPS is considered
20. Esophageal varices
Engorged submucosal veins in lower esophagus and proximal
stomach
Thirty percent of patients with cirrhosis develop varices
The rate of development of varices in cirrhotics is approximately
5-15% per year.
One third of patients with varices present with bleeding varices
Screening EsophagoGastroDuodenoscopy (EGD)
21. Risk of developing bleeding from varices depends on
Severity of liver disease
Patients with HVPG >12 mmHg
Previous episodes of variceal bleeding
Size of varices
Red wale signs
22. Assessment of patient
• Assessment of the liver disease
• Assessment of the portal circulation
• Upper gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy
23. Evaluation of liver disease is based on clinical findings and
laboratory studies
T. Bilirubin and liver enzymes increases, Albumin decreased
and Prothrombin time increased
Viral serology to rule out viral hepatitis
The two important scoring systems for liver disease severity are
the Child-Pugh score and the Model for End-stage Liver
Disease (MELD) score
24.
25. Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) Score
9.57 Ln(S.Cr) + 3.78 Ln(T.bil) + 11.2Ln(INR) + 6.43
<10 – safely undergo elective surgery,
10 - 15 – may undergo surgery with caution,
>15 – should not be subjected to elective
surgical procedures
26. Assessment of Portal Circulation and vascular anatomy of
liver is by Imaging techniques
USG and Doppler
CT and MR Angiography
27. Doppler ultrasound can assess size, directional flow, velocities
and wave-form patterns of the portal and hepatic veins
especially patency (or thrombosis) of the portal vein.
CT or MR angiography helps when doppler findings are
inconclusive or of any doubt
28. Upper GI Endoscopy
All patients diagnosed as cirrhotics have to undergo upper gi
endoscopy
Varices are classified depending on their endoscopic
appearance
29. Grading of Varices
Size of varix 2 size classification 3 size classification
Small < 5 mm Minimally elevated
veins above the
mucosal surface
Medium Tortuous veins
occupying <1/3rd of
the lumen
Large > 5 mm Occupying >1/3rd of
the lumen
Red signs/Red wale signs denote impending bleeding from the
varices
37. Pharmacological therapy consists of
Non selective β bolcker therapy – Propranolol, Nadolol
Cost effective
Reduce the risk of first hemorrhage by 45% and assoscuated
mortality by 50%
Have significant side effects – Impotence
Non responders(20%) and not tolerated(20%)
38. Endoscopic therapy consists of
Endoscopic Variceal ligation(EVL) or Sclerotherapy
Performed for 1-2 weeks untill obliteration followed by EGD 1-3
months following the procedure
Controls variceal bleeding in >90% patients
Reduces the risk and has minimal side effects when compared
to β blocker therapy
But is more costly and not easily available in developing
countries
39. 1. Patients with Compensated cirrhosis and No varices
No prophylaxis, Screening EGD every 3 years
2. Patients with Small varices and
No Increased risk – β blockers can be used but benifit not
established
Having increased risk – β blocker therapy and repeat EGD every
2 years
40. 3. Patients with cirrhosis and medium or large varices
No Increased risk – β blocker therapy is considered with annual
screening EGD
In case of contraindication or non compliance, EVL or
sclerotherapy
Has Increased risk – prophylactic EVL or sclerotherapy is
considered
41. Acute variceal bleeding
Recussitation
Admission to ICU
Blood transfusion (Target Hb-8gm)
Correction of Coagulopathy (FFP, Platelets)
Prophylactic Antibiotics
Combined Pharmacologic and endoscopic treatment
Tracheal intubation may be needed in cases of massive bleed
to secure airway and prevent aspiration
45. When medical and endoscopic measures fail to control
variceal hemorrhage, balloon tamponade using a Sengstaken-
Blakemore tube will control refractory bleeding in up to 90% of
patients.
However, its application is limited due to the potential for
complications, which include aspiration, airway obstruction,
and esophageal perforation due to overinflation or pressure
necrosis
Luminal Tamponade
46. The gastric balloon is inflated
first by 200 ml of air, and
pulled upwards to press the
gastric fundus.
If bleeding continues, the
oesophageal balloon is inflated.
The pressure in the
oesophageal balloon should
be 30-40 mm Hg.
This therapy is effective in
controlling bleeding in 80-90%
of cases.
47.
48. Secondary Prophylaxis
Combined endoscopic and pharmacologic therapies are used
Long term endoscopic control with banding or sclerotherapy of
recurrent varices every 3-6 months
Non selective β blocker therapy starting at low dose and
increasing until resting HR decreases by 25% but not below
55bpm
If combined therapy fails / patient is not compliant, TIPS or other
shunt procedure is considered especially if patient is a
transplant candidate
50. TIPS procedure involves implantation of a metallic stent
between an intrahepatic branch of the portal vein and a hepatic
vein radicle
The needle track is dilated until a portal pressure gradient of
≤12 mmHg is achieved
Controls variceal bleeding in >90% of cases refractory to
medical treatment,
51. The major advantage of TIPS is that it is nonoperative
approach
Portal vein patency must be established conclusively before
procedure
Disadvantages
Shunt Occlusion(50% at 1yr) – Thrombosis or Neointimal
hyperplasia
High incidence of Hepatic Encephalopathy(30-35%)
Severe hemorrhage in case of puncture of extra hepatic portal
vein
52. TIPS is best suited to provide short term portal system
decompression
Patients most suitable for TIPS are Liver transplant
candidates who fail endoscopic or pharmacologic
therapies
54. Porto Systemic Shunts
Porto systemic shunt procedures aim to decompress the
portal system to varying degrees by shunting portal blood
to systemic vessels
Most of the shunt procedures today are only historically
significant
55. Surgical shunt procedures today are considered only if the patient
has
Severe liver disease
Not a transplant candidate
Does not have access to TIPSS
Prognosis mainly depends on hepatic reserve
56. Surgical shunt procedures are classified as
Non Selective Shunts
Selective Shunts
Partial Shunts
57. Non Selective shunts
Aim to decompress the portal system by completely
diverting the portal blood flow
Hence also called Total shunts
58.
59. End to Side Anastomosis (Eck’s fistula)
In classic end-to-side portocaval shunt the portal vein is divided
close to the hilum of the liver and the splanchnic end
anastomosed to the side of the vena cava.
This decompresses the portal hypertension but leaves the
obstructed sinusoids under high pressure.
It will not relieve ascites but will control variceal bleeding.
60.
61. Side to side Anastamosis
Side to side shunts are either direct vein to vein anastamoses
or wide interposition grafts
Intact upper end of the portal vein serves as a decompressive
outflow from the high-pressure–obstructed liver sinusoids.
Hence, in addition to controlling variceal bleeding, these shunts
also control ascites.
62.
63. Proximal Splenorenal shunt
Conventional Splenorenal shunt involves splenectomy and end
on side anastamosis of proximal end of the splenic vein to left
renal vein
Major disadvantage is Shunt stenosis and thrombosis
64. Controls variceal bleeding effectively
Major drawbacks of Total shunts
Loss of Portal Circulation to liver (Portoprivial Syndrome)
Accelerated Hepatic failure
High incidence of Hepatic Encephalopathy
65. Selective Shunts
Selective shunts aim to
decompress the esophagogastric varices and
preserve the portal blood flow to liver
Maintain residual portal HTN
Distal Splenorenal shunt
67. Distal Spleno Renal Shunt
Distal part of splenic vein is anastomosed to left renal vein
Introduced by Warren
Decompresses the gastro splenic circulations but high pressure
in mesenteric and portal veins persist
Doesnot relieve / rather aggravates Ascites
68. Control of variceal bleeding in 90-95%
Portal perfusion maintained in >90% in nonalcoholic liver
disease but only 50% in alcoholic liver disease
Incidence of encephalopathy reduced to 15%
Technically more difficult than total shunts
70. Partial shunts
Objectives are same as selective shunts
Different from selective shunt in that splenic and mesenteric
blood flows are not divided from one another
Previously narrow vein to vein side on anastamosis was done
Either thrombosed or dilated to become total shunt
71. Recently small calibre interposition grafts are being used
Controlled variceal bleeding in 90%
Maintained Portal perfusion in 80%
73. The Sugiura procedure is a 2 step procedure, consists of
Extensive devascularization of the stomach and distal esophagus
Splenectomy
Transection of the esophagus
Truncal vagotomy
Pyloroplasty.
Modified Sugiura approach differs from original in that it spares
vagal branches to pylorus so that pyloroplasty is not required
74. Modifications for Sugiura-Futagawa procedure
Sparing of Vagal branches to pylorus of stomach and eliminating
need for pyloroplasty
Esophageal Devascularisation without Splenectomy – by
Orozco recommends Splenectomy only in cases of
hyperspleenism and Spleenic vein thrombosis
75. Liver Transplant
Definitive treatment for any End Stage Liver Disease
Only therapy that addresses underlying liver disease
Very expensive and Donor organs are not readily available
77. References
Sabiston Text book of Surgery 20th ed.
Bailey and Love Short Practice of Surgery 26th ed.
Schwartz Principles of Surgery 10th ed.
Maingot’s Abdominal Operations 12th ed.
Harrisons principles of Internal Medicine 19th ed.
Robins Textbook of Pathology 10th ed.
Internet