This was a term paper for my Public Policy course. It is an analysis of the political feasibility of the Fair Housing Act of 1968. This analysis was based on the policy proposals, the political environment, and the level of opposition the bill faced while being examined for passage or failure.
Ethnographic research is one of the many crucial research methodologies in educational research. This well-researched ppt gives a clear picture of the what, how, and why of the research design.
Ethnographic research is one of the many crucial research methodologies in educational research. This well-researched ppt gives a clear picture of the what, how, and why of the research design.
Teknologi organisasi adalah konsep yang semakin penting dalam lingkungan bisnis dan organisasi modern. Ini mencakup penggunaan berbagai jenis teknologi, sistem informasi, dan perangkat lunak untuk meningkatkan efisiensi, produktivitas, dan daya saing suatu organisasi. Dalam paragraf ini, kita akan menjelajahi mengapa teknologi organisasi sangat vital dalam dunia bisnis dan organisasi saat ini.
Pertama, teknologi organisasi memberikan alat yang kuat untuk meningkatkan efisiensi operasional. Di era digital ini, banyak organisasi mengandalkan sistem otomatisasi dan perangkat lunak untuk mengelola tugas-tugas sehari-hari mereka. Contohnya adalah perangkat lunak manajemen inventaris yang membantu mengoptimalkan persediaan, sistem keuangan yang mengotomatisasi proses akuntansi, dan perangkat lunak manajemen proyek yang memungkinkan kolaborasi tim yang lebih baik. Semua ini membantu mengurangi waktu yang dihabiskan untuk tugas-tugas rutin dan memungkinkan sumber daya manusia untuk fokus pada pekerjaan yang lebih strategis.
Kedua, teknologi organisasi memungkinkan organisasi untuk mengumpulkan, menyimpan, dan menganalisis data dengan lebih efisien. Data adalah aset berharga, dan teknologi memungkinkan organisasi untuk mengumpulkannya dari berbagai sumber, termasuk pelanggan, mitra, dan proses internal. Dengan alat analisis data yang canggih, organisasi dapat menggali wawasan berharga yang dapat digunakan untuk mengambil keputusan yang lebih baik. Analisis data membantu organisasi mengidentifikasi tren pasar, perilaku pelanggan, dan peluang pertumbuhan baru. Dengan demikian, teknologi organisasi membantu organisasi untuk tetap relevan dan bersaing dalam lingkungan yang terus berubah.
Ketiga, teknologi organisasi memfasilitasi komunikasi dan kolaborasi yang lebih baik. Di era globalisasi ini, banyak organisasi memiliki tim yang terbagi di berbagai lokasi geografis. Teknologi seperti video konferensi, platform kolaborasi online, dan alat komunikasi real-time memungkinkan tim untuk bekerja sama tanpa batasan geografis. Ini meningkatkan kolaborasi tim, memungkinkan ide-ide berfluktuasi lebih bebas, dan membantu organisasi beroperasi dengan lebih efisien di pasar global.
Keempat, teknologi organisasi mendukung fleksibilitas dan mobilitas dalam dunia kerja modern. Banyak organisasi sekarang mengadopsi konsep kerja jarak jauh atau bekerja dari mana saja. Teknologi seperti perangkat seluler, perangkat lunak berbasis cloud, dan akses internet yang cepat memungkinkan karyawan untuk bekerja dari lokasi apa pun. Ini memberikan fleksibilitas yang lebih besar kepada karyawan dan dapat meningkatkan keseimbangan antara pekerjaan dan kehidupan pribadi.
Peran dan Strategi JFAK Dalam Komunikasi Kebijakan PublikTri Widodo W. UTOMO
Disampaikan pada Webinar “Komunikasi dan Literasi Kebijakan Publik Efektif di Era Digital”, diselenggarakan oleh Kementerian Kominfo RI
Jakarta, 21 Juni 2022
Dr. Tri Widodo W. Utomo, MA
Deputi Kajian Kebijakan dan Inovasi Administrasi Negara LAN-RI
kebijakan publik adalah kebijakan-kebijakan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah sebagai pembuat kebijakan untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan tertentu di masyarakat di mana dalam penyusunannya melalui berbagai tahapan
In this lecture you will learn about the importance of research questions, how they related to research problems, the properties of good research questions, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative research questions.
Teknologi organisasi adalah konsep yang semakin penting dalam lingkungan bisnis dan organisasi modern. Ini mencakup penggunaan berbagai jenis teknologi, sistem informasi, dan perangkat lunak untuk meningkatkan efisiensi, produktivitas, dan daya saing suatu organisasi. Dalam paragraf ini, kita akan menjelajahi mengapa teknologi organisasi sangat vital dalam dunia bisnis dan organisasi saat ini.
Pertama, teknologi organisasi memberikan alat yang kuat untuk meningkatkan efisiensi operasional. Di era digital ini, banyak organisasi mengandalkan sistem otomatisasi dan perangkat lunak untuk mengelola tugas-tugas sehari-hari mereka. Contohnya adalah perangkat lunak manajemen inventaris yang membantu mengoptimalkan persediaan, sistem keuangan yang mengotomatisasi proses akuntansi, dan perangkat lunak manajemen proyek yang memungkinkan kolaborasi tim yang lebih baik. Semua ini membantu mengurangi waktu yang dihabiskan untuk tugas-tugas rutin dan memungkinkan sumber daya manusia untuk fokus pada pekerjaan yang lebih strategis.
Kedua, teknologi organisasi memungkinkan organisasi untuk mengumpulkan, menyimpan, dan menganalisis data dengan lebih efisien. Data adalah aset berharga, dan teknologi memungkinkan organisasi untuk mengumpulkannya dari berbagai sumber, termasuk pelanggan, mitra, dan proses internal. Dengan alat analisis data yang canggih, organisasi dapat menggali wawasan berharga yang dapat digunakan untuk mengambil keputusan yang lebih baik. Analisis data membantu organisasi mengidentifikasi tren pasar, perilaku pelanggan, dan peluang pertumbuhan baru. Dengan demikian, teknologi organisasi membantu organisasi untuk tetap relevan dan bersaing dalam lingkungan yang terus berubah.
Ketiga, teknologi organisasi memfasilitasi komunikasi dan kolaborasi yang lebih baik. Di era globalisasi ini, banyak organisasi memiliki tim yang terbagi di berbagai lokasi geografis. Teknologi seperti video konferensi, platform kolaborasi online, dan alat komunikasi real-time memungkinkan tim untuk bekerja sama tanpa batasan geografis. Ini meningkatkan kolaborasi tim, memungkinkan ide-ide berfluktuasi lebih bebas, dan membantu organisasi beroperasi dengan lebih efisien di pasar global.
Keempat, teknologi organisasi mendukung fleksibilitas dan mobilitas dalam dunia kerja modern. Banyak organisasi sekarang mengadopsi konsep kerja jarak jauh atau bekerja dari mana saja. Teknologi seperti perangkat seluler, perangkat lunak berbasis cloud, dan akses internet yang cepat memungkinkan karyawan untuk bekerja dari lokasi apa pun. Ini memberikan fleksibilitas yang lebih besar kepada karyawan dan dapat meningkatkan keseimbangan antara pekerjaan dan kehidupan pribadi.
Peran dan Strategi JFAK Dalam Komunikasi Kebijakan PublikTri Widodo W. UTOMO
Disampaikan pada Webinar “Komunikasi dan Literasi Kebijakan Publik Efektif di Era Digital”, diselenggarakan oleh Kementerian Kominfo RI
Jakarta, 21 Juni 2022
Dr. Tri Widodo W. Utomo, MA
Deputi Kajian Kebijakan dan Inovasi Administrasi Negara LAN-RI
kebijakan publik adalah kebijakan-kebijakan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah sebagai pembuat kebijakan untuk mencapai tujuan-tujuan tertentu di masyarakat di mana dalam penyusunannya melalui berbagai tahapan
In this lecture you will learn about the importance of research questions, how they related to research problems, the properties of good research questions, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative research questions.
The Globalization Of Markets Critical ReviewNancy Sachdeva
Theodore Levitt’s 1983 article called about the globalization of markets is one of the most read article till date on the subject. Although, there is much debate about the relevancy of article in today\'s times but even today it is one of the must read articles at the Harvard Business Classes.
Our 5th Impact Forum was held on September 14, 2016 at Civic Hall, NYC's foremost center for civic technology & innovation, on the topic of Elections. Election Systems are best understood by the rules and incentives constructed around them. Evaluating the United States’ and New York’s Electoral Systems reveals a series of important policy choices that will shape what our electorate will look like in the coming decades. Impact Elections will dig into key question such as: How does money predict elections? How will technology shape voting of the future? Does the current voting system fundamentally fail certain segments of our country's population? What can voting systems from other nations tell us about options for change?
Impact Experts composing the panel at Elections included: Ann Ravel (Federal Elections Commissioner), Gustavo Rivera (New York State Senator), James Bopp (Plaintiff's Attorney for Citizens United v. FEC), Richard Briffault (Professor, Columbia Law School), the legal advisor to Stephen Colbert's Presidential Campaign, the President of the NYC Campaign Finance Board, and more.
Learn more about Impact Elections here:
https://impactelections2016.splashthat.com
What are the unenforced sections of the Fourteenth Amendment?
Can Kevin McCarthy, Speaker of the House, and the Republicans in the House of Representatives hold the national and world economies hostage over the debt ceiling negotiations?
Can the January 6th rioters be denied the right to hold public office?
Could the representation of the former Confederate states have been reduced when they passed the Jim Crow laws denying black citizens suffrage, or the right to vote?
For more interesting videos, please click to subscribe to our YouTube Channel:
https://www.youtube.com/@ReflectionsMPH/?sub_confirmation=1
Shortcut: https://www.youtube.com/@ReflectionsMPH
This blog includes footnotes and Amazon book links:
https://seekingvirtueandwisdom.com/unenforced-sections-of-the-14th-reconstruction-amendment-public-debt-and-insurrection/
YouTube video: https://youtu.be/GoDYRQzFRhI
Fourteenth Amendment
• Section 1: All persons born and naturalized in the United States are citizens, and all citizens are entitled to due process and equal protection under the law.
• Section 2: NEVER ENFORCED: If a state denies the right to vote to a class of its citizens, its representation for the Presidential Electoral College and the House of Representatives shall be reduced.
• Section 3. ENFORCED ONLY AFTER CIVIL WAR: Anyone guilty of insurrection or rebellion is disqualified from running for public office in not only the federal government, but also state and local elected offices.
• Section 4. NEVER ENFORCED: Ensuring the validity of the public debt of the United States.
We also reflect on:
• How the Confederate states were compelled to adopt these Reconstruction amendments before they were readmitted to the Union.
• Eric Foner’s book on the history of the Reconstruction Amendments, Second Founding.
• Comparing the disputed 1876 Presidential Election to the disputed 2020 Presidential election. How slates of alternate electors were selected by both parties in swing states.
• How Congress formed the Electoral Commission in 1877.
• How the Northern congressmen agreed to withdraw federal troops from the South in exchange for the Southerners agreeing to accept that the Republican candidate for President, Rutherford B Hayes.
• The Amnesty Act of 1872, and whether the 14th Amendment prohibitions applied to Madison Cawthorn or Marjorie Taylor Greene, or MJT.
• How the Supreme Court upheld the prospective application of validating the public debt in Perry v. United States.
• Obama and Biden and the debt ceiling crisis.
• Abraham Lincoln suspending the writ of habeas corpus in Maryland, and the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act of 1863.
Running Head Week Two Annotated Bibliography Worksheet1Week.docxrtodd599
Running Head: Week Two Annotated Bibliography Worksheet
1
Week Two Annotated Bibliography Worksheet
3
Week Two Annotated Bibliography Worksheet
Keisha Thomas
POL201 American National Government
Mark Ladd
August 20, 2018
Topic: The Civil Rights Movement of 1964.
In 1964, the Civil Rights Act ended segregation in public places banning employment discrimination that was based on national origin, sex, religion, race or color. This is considered as one of the most crowning achievements as far as civil right movements are concerned. Despite the strong opposition from the southerners, it was signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson who succeeded Kennedy. The topic is important to address since it played a vital role in the removal of the procedures and registration requirements that were biased against the underprivileged and minorities (Davis, 2016). Moreover, it also called for the nondiscrimination in fund distributions, public school desegregation as well as the broadening of Civil Rights Commission duties (Percy, 2018).
A. Source 1
Brown, R. L. (2017). Accountability, liberty, and the Constitution. In Bills of Rights (pp. 49-98). Routledge.
In his article Brown (2017) asserts that political accountability in constitutional theory has been misunderstood. This has led to the contribution of the model that places majority rule at the center of constitutional legitimacy requiring special justification for departures. The model offers the start point for much of the modern constitutional theory in the sense that judicial review is branded as a “deviant” institution. History suggests that in America, representation was not designed as a means of people to take part in government but rather as a means for people protecting themselves from the representative government of their own. This explains the reason why people understand the principle of political accountability as a way to protect themselves. People are allowed to check abuse of power as well as overseeing a political structure.
B. Source 2
Rosenbloom, D. H. (2016). 3a. Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers. In The Constitutional School of American Public Administration (pp. 78-94). Routledge.
In public administration, there has been an experience of absent or weak theoretical core (Rosenbloom, 2016). The paper found out that the main problem affecting the public administrative theory emanates from three disparate approaches as to what public administration really is. These approaches are labeled “legal,” “managerial,” and “political”. On public administration, they influence each other in the sense that they overlap following the pattern of the constitutional separation of powers. These approaches are not likely to be synthesized without having to violate the values ingrained deeply in the U.S culture of politics (Rosenbloom, 2016).
C. Source 3
Pettit, B., & Sykes, B. L. (2015). Civil rights legislation and legalized exclusion: Mass incarceration and the masking of ine.
The Civil Rights Movement
Outline presentation
Introduction
Content
Historical context of Civil Rights Movement
Some of significant movement
The Success and Limitations of the Civil Rights Movement
Quiz
Historical context
The 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments were suppose to protect the rights of African Americans under the U.S. Constitution…
But they did not because of a ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court…
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Understanding the Challenges of Street ChildrenSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
This session provides a comprehensive overview of the latest updates to the Uniform Administrative Requirements, Cost Principles, and Audit Requirements for Federal Awards (commonly known as the Uniform Guidance) outlined in the 2 CFR 200.
With a focus on the 2024 revisions issued by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), participants will gain insight into the key changes affecting federal grant recipients. The session will delve into critical regulatory updates, providing attendees with the knowledge and tools necessary to navigate and comply with the evolving landscape of federal grant management.
Learning Objectives:
- Understand the rationale behind the 2024 updates to the Uniform Guidance outlined in 2 CFR 200, and their implications for federal grant recipients.
- Identify the key changes and revisions introduced by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) in the 2024 edition of 2 CFR 200.
- Gain proficiency in applying the updated regulations to ensure compliance with federal grant requirements and avoid potential audit findings.
- Develop strategies for effectively implementing the new guidelines within the grant management processes of their respective organizations, fostering efficiency and accountability in federal grant administration.
What is the point of small housing associations.pptxPaul Smith
Given the small scale of housing associations and their relative high cost per home what is the point of them and how do we justify their continued existance
Many ways to support street children.pptxSERUDS INDIA
By raising awareness, providing support, advocating for change, and offering assistance to children in need, individuals can play a crucial role in improving the lives of street children and helping them realize their full potential
Donate Us
https://serudsindia.org/how-individuals-can-support-street-children-in-india/
#donatefororphan, #donateforhomelesschildren, #childeducation, #ngochildeducation, #donateforeducation, #donationforchildeducation, #sponsorforpoorchild, #sponsororphanage #sponsororphanchild, #donation, #education, #charity, #educationforchild, #seruds, #kurnool, #joyhome
ZGB - The Role of Generative AI in Government transformation.pdfSaeed Al Dhaheri
This keynote was presented during the the 7th edition of the UAE Hackathon 2024. It highlights the role of AI and Generative AI in addressing government transformation to achieve zero government bureaucracy
Russian anarchist and anti-war movement in the third year of full-scale warAntti Rautiainen
Anarchist group ANA Regensburg hosted my online-presentation on 16th of May 2024, in which I discussed tactics of anti-war activism in Russia, and reasons why the anti-war movement has not been able to make an impact to change the course of events yet. Cases of anarchists repressed for anti-war activities are presented, as well as strategies of support for political prisoners, and modest successes in supporting their struggles.
Thumbnail picture is by MediaZona, you may read their report on anti-war arson attacks in Russia here: https://en.zona.media/article/2022/10/13/burn-map
Links:
Autonomous Action
http://Avtonom.org
Anarchist Black Cross Moscow
http://Avtonom.org/abc
Solidarity Zone
https://t.me/solidarity_zone
Memorial
https://memopzk.org/, https://t.me/pzk_memorial
OVD-Info
https://en.ovdinfo.org/antiwar-ovd-info-guide
RosUznik
https://rosuznik.org/
Uznik Online
http://uznikonline.tilda.ws/
Russian Reader
https://therussianreader.com/
ABC Irkutsk
https://abc38.noblogs.org/
Send mail to prisoners from abroad:
http://Prisonmail.online
YouTube: https://youtu.be/c5nSOdU48O8
Spotify: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/libertarianlifecoach/episodes/Russian-anarchist-and-anti-war-movement-in-the-third-year-of-full-scale-war-e2k8ai4
PPT Item # 9 - 2024 Street Maintenance Program(SMP) Amendment
Political Feasibility Analysis of the Fair Housing Act
1. Campbell 1
Erika Campbell
Professor Sapotichne
PLS 313-001
14 December 2015
Fair Housing Act of 1968: A Feasibility Analysis
For millions of individuals and families in the United States, the ability to purchase a
home is considered a crucial part of the “American Dream”. From the beginning of the housing
market, both private and public groups, as well as governmental organizations, have attempted to
find ways to make attaining the dream of home ownership more feasible for Americans. This
issue is one of the utmost importance to constituents and politicians alike. This importance is
based in the representation of housing as not only a basic human need, but also a larger symbol
of the prosperity and growth of both cities and nations. In the year 1968, the playing field for
housing was better leveled, with the passage of the Fair Housing Act, which put into law
prohibitions against the discrimination in sale or rental of housing based on race.
Issue Emergence:
The issue of fair housing was not one that emerged only in 1968, during the 1900s the
United States saw a heavy movement of African Americans from North to South. What came to
be known as the Great Migration was the attempt of African-American workers to escape the
racially-hostile environment of the South. With this movement, the issue of housing segregation
in urban areas emerged, and subsequently the denial of African Americans from white suburbs.
White suburbanites believed that allowing black families into their neighborhoods would cause a
decrease in housing prices, and were unwilling to watch real-estate prices drop. Therefore, the
necessity for their votes enabled politicians to “frame and tailor this issue in their zeal to attract
2. Campbell 2
and retain the crucial suburban vote” (Lamb 3). President Lyndon B. Johnson, whose
administration oversaw the passage of the Fair Housing Act, believed that the “need for a fair
housing statue was apparent from the pervasiveness of black-white housing segregation” (Lamb
26).
In order to achieve the passage of The Fair Housing Act (FHA), certain political and legal
factors were important precursors. The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited all
discrimination on the basis of race, color, religions, sex, or national origin, especially in regards
to public life such as facilities, schools, and voter registration. However, this law did not
discriminate against the private and public sale of property. Therefore, it was only after this set
of laws had been enacted that President Johnson began advancing the Fair Housing Act.
Additionally, the dramatic change in ideological viewpoint between the Republican and
Democratic parties regarding civil rights played an increasingly important role. While
Republicans became more conservative toward civil rights issues, Democrats became more
liberal. Then, with the induction of Lyndon Johnson, whose idea of a “Great Society (27) heavily
involved racial justice, an incredible triad was created within the American legal and legislative
system: “a Democratic President, a democratic congress, and a liberal-activist supreme court”
(27) were ready to pass and defend some of the most ground-breaking pieces of civil rights
legislation the nation had encountered, and with this political climate, the Fair Housing Act was
mobilized by President Johnson.
Image 1
Policy Proposals:
With the political environment and legal system ready to receive civil rights legislation,
one of the most important details in ensuring the passage of the Fair Housing Act was the
3. Campbell 3
POLICYISSUE POLICY PROVISIONS
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT:
AS HOUSING REGULATIONS
No
government
regulation:
Citizens
may choose
who to sell
to as
desired
Limited
Regulation:
Government
takes a partial
role in housing
sale regulations
Mixed
Regulation:
Government
takes a more
involved role
in housing sale
regulation
Complete
Regulation:
Government
as
regulators
of housing
sales
PENALTY:
PROCEEDINGS OF
PUNISHMENT/INVESTIGATION
OF THOSE WHO DO NOT
ADHERE TO HOUSING SALE
REGULATIONS
No penalty:
Citizens
may sell
property as
they see fit.
Referral to local
proceedings:
Individual
jurisdictions
handle
investigations
Secretarial
investigation
with local
enforcement:
Federally-
appointed
secretary
investigates
incident with
assistance of
local
enforcement
Federal
investigation
and
punishment:
Local
enforcement
has no role
TIME/IMPLEMENTATION:
AMOUNT OF TIME BEFORE STATES
AND INDIVIDUALS MUST COMPLY
WITH BILL
No time
frame: No
regulation
on sales.
Bill is enacted
but on no
specific time
frame
Federal
properties must
enact
immediately,
private owners
must adhere by
December 31st,
1968
Immediate
enactment
APPLICATION OF BILL:
WHO MUST ADHERE TO THIS BILL
No
application:
No
regulatory
bill
Federally-
owned/controlled
properties
All federally-
owned, private
citizens and
realtors, with
special
exemptions
All private
and public
owners, no
exemptions
GOVERNMENT INVESTMENT:
MONETARY INVESTMENT AND
OVERSIGHT OF THE APPLICATION OF
THE BILL
No
government
investment:
No
regulation
on sales
Reimbursement
given to states
and cities that
cooperate in bill,
no federal
oversight.
Appropriation
of funds for
legal
proceedings of
bill.
Provides
funding and
federal
monitoring
of the
enactment
of bill
4. Campbell 4
consideration of the many different policy proposals for this issue. As image one shows above,
one of the most contentious pars of this bill is whether or not the federal government is able to
tell private owners who they must sell to. Therefore, the final bill that passed would stem from
this issue. The section under greatest debate were those regarding the mechanics and specific
details enactment.
The first criteria listed describes the ways in which investigation and punishment will be
handled in the event that a person disobeys this anti-discrimination bill. Having local
governments, federal investigators, or a mix of the two institutions are three possible solutions
for giving a non-biased, thorough investigation to claims of discriminatory housing policies. The
second row gives a time frame under which private citizens and government housing must begin
to adhere to the bill if enacted.
The third row presents an important part of both possible policy proposals, and what was
eventually passed into law. Who the bill applies to presents both challenges and several different
policy proposals that could be considered. If the government has full control, then no
government or private property owner, nor realtor may discriminate in property sales. However,
private citizens are often wary of having government tell them how to handle private matters,
therefore other exemptions (such as the religious exemption of the final bill) had to be
considered by legislators. The final piece of criteria that holds importance for the Fair Housing
Act is the way in which the government will fund and oversee the implementation of the bill.
With more funding for integration programs there is more government involvement and
oversight, which can often be a point of disagreement between both political parties and citizens.
Government officials then had the important task of considering each of these proposals, while
5. Campbell 5
balancing out the interests of private citizens with the interests of those being discriminated
against, as well as taking into account powerful interest groups at work.
INTEREST GROUP DESCRIPTION
6. Campbell 6
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
Civil rights leaders during 1950s and 60s. Won
several important court cases for civil rights,
approx. 600,000 members during 1960s
KU KLUX KLAN Religious background. Chapters in 15 states,
many Congressmen former members. 20,000
members during 1960s.
CONGRESS OF RACIAL EQUALITY Considered one of “big four” civil rights
groups. Organized Freedom Summer, freedom
rides, and nationwide protests. Predominantly
white members
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
REALTORS
1,550 active chapters, 87,871 members during
1968.
Image 2
Interest Group Power:
Despite the political environment and number of possible policy provisions, interest
groups working for or against the Fair Housing Act attempted to use their political power to
7. Campbell 7
shape the policy in a way that was most expedient for them. Two key civil rights organizations,
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the Congress of Racial
Equality, pushed hard to see the passage of legislation that would outlaw discrimination in the
sale of housing, with as little change as possible. In contrast, groups such as the Ku Klux Klan
and National Association of Realtors hoped to see all or part of the legislation struck down, and
use any power to see the bill’s policies favor them.
The two organizations in favor of passing the Fair Housing Act believed in passing it without
exemptions and with plenty of avenues for citizens to report discrimination in housing. The
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was one of the Fair
Housing Act’s greatest supporters. The NAACP was a historically powerful political force, with
approximately 600,000 members during 1960s, with an unprecedented ability to mobilize
support and win landmark court cases with their legal team. Public protests organized by the
NAACP such as the Freedom Rides of 1961, and court cases like Brown v Board of Education
had placed this interest group on the political landscape. Additionally, their lobbying efforts had
helped push forward the Voting Rights Act of 1965, as well as the integration of the armed
forces. All of this participation and success in past political environments made it clear that
having the NAACP backing a bill was an important perquisite of passing a civil rights policy.
Similar to the NAACP, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) carried political power
through their years of organized protest and civic engagement. Their work included voter
registration for black men and women, as well as freedom rides, sit-ins, and lobbying for
different pieces of legislation. Their membership consisted of a majority of white members,
bringing a level of legitimacy to a civil rights organization that would have been received poorly
during the 1960s had the members been predominantly black. These two organizations,
8. Campbell 8
consisting of both black and white members, had proven themselves powerful political players
throughout the years and continued to lobby and fight for the Fair Housing Act during the year of
1968.
While both the NAACP and CORE offered strong support and political power for the
passage of the Fair Housing Act, two key interest groups fought for greater modification or
denial of the bill. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a radical interest group, had been in existence since
the mid-1800s, and was known throughout the country as a group determined to halt any attempt
to grant African Americans any civil rights. This history of anti-black activist and resurgence of
support during the 1960s allowed them to reach 20,000 members spread over 12 active chapters,
giving them enough political power to influence southern politicians voting on the bill. This
influence of southern politicians was seen when “on one occasion, Senator Robert Byrd of West
Virginia, a former Ku Klux Klan member, spoke for over 14 consecutive hours” (A&E
Networks) against the Fair Housing Act. Having congressmen as former members gave the KKK
a level of influence that would make passage of the bill much more difficult, and give them the
opportunity to influence modifications.
The second key interest group to consider in the modification and passage of the Fair
Housing Act is the National Association of Realtors (NAR). The Fair Housing Act has explicit
clauses barring discrimination not only when owners sell property, but when realtors do so as
well. These clauses were not to the satisfaction of NAR, and their discontent with the policy
created a very powerful enemy of the Fair Housing Act. During 1968, the NAR was not only
politically active, but had 1,550 chapters and 87,871 members to endorse their opposition to the
FHA. The number of members and chapters alone gave NAR a great deal of political standing,
9. Campbell 9
and their activism as an interest group made it all the more powerful as the Fair Housing Act
worked its way through Congress.
Image Three
Interest Group Symbol:
Indicates policy influence
10. Campbell 10
POLICYISSUE POLICY PROVISIONS
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT:
AS HOUSING SALE REGULATORS
No
government
regulation:
Citizens
may choose
who to sell
to as
desired
Limited
Regulation:
Government
takes a partial
role in housing
sale regulations
Mixed
Regulation:
Government
takes a more
involved role
in housing sale
regulation
Complete
Regulation:
Government
as
regulators
of housing
sales
PENALTY:
PROCEEDINGS OF
PUNISHMENT/INVESTIGATION
OF THOSE WHO DO NOT
ADHERE TO HOUSING SALE
REGULATIONS
No penalty:
Citizens
may sell
property as
they see fit.
Referral to local
proceedings:
Individual
jurisdictions
handle
investigations
Secretarial
investigation
with local
enforcement:
Federally-
appointed
secretary
investigates
incident with
assistance of
local
enforcement
Federal
investigation
and
punishment:
Local
enforcement
has no role
TIME/IMPLEMENTATION:
AMOUNT OF TIME BEFORE STATES
AND INDIVIDUALS MUST COMPLY
WITH BILL
No time
frame: No
regulation
on sales.
Bill is enacted
but on no
specific time
frame
Federal
properties must
enact
immediately,
private owners
must adhere by
December 31st,
1968
Immediate
enactment
APPLICATION OF BILL:
WHO MUST ADHERE TO THIS BILL
No
application:
No
regulatory
bill
Federally-
owned/controlled
properties
All federally-
owned, private
citizens, and
realtors, with
special
exemptions
All private
and public
owners, no
exemptions
GOVERNMENT INVESTMENT:
MONETARY INVESTMENT AND
OVERSIGHT OF THE APPLICATION OF
THE BILL
No
government
investment:
No
regulation
on sales
Reimbursement
given to states
and cities that
cooperate in bill,
no federal
oversight.
Appropriation
of funds for
legal
proceedings of
bill.
Provides
funding and
federal
monitoring
of the
enactment
of bill
11. Campbell 11
National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP)
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
National Association of Realtors (NAR)
Image Three Key
Interest Group Influence:
The power and influence of the key interest groups surrounding the Fair Housing Act
affected the way in which the policy would take its final form, and when these interest groups
came together either for or against the FHA, the influence becomes even stronger. The NAACP
and CORE formed an “advocacy coalition” (Birkland), portrayed by the large blue circle. Both
the NAACP and CORE worked solely on the ideology of racial equality, and when the FHA
promised equality in the housing market, they quickly supported the role of government as a
housing regulator. While both the Ku Klux Klan and the National Association of Realtors had
the money, support, and tradition of influencing policy makers, they stood separate on the ways
in which they wanted to the bill to be handled. Therefore, their individual influence was not
nearly as strong as the combined force of CORE and the NAACP. The influence of these two
civil rights groups was crucial, as the FHA was a use of mobilization for agenda setting by
President Johnson, who put the bill on the agenda. After this topic was placed on the agenda, it
was up to pro-FHA groups such as the NAACP and CORE to expand positive attention on the
issue to the larger public and media.
12. Campbell 12
While the actual clause of anti-discrimination was passed, certain bargains regarding the
mechanics of the bill had to be made in order for groups such as the NAR and the KKK to be
appeased. According to the NAR website, realtors worried that the “law made it too easy for
complainants to get an administrative remedy, whereas a court remedy was tied up in a tedious
process that required the U.S. Department of Justice to establish a pattern” (Salvant). With their
large membership and lobbying power, the NAR wanted to influence policymakers toward a
more fully explained and drawn-out system for filing discrimination claims, protecting
themselves from facing unwarranted litigation.
The Ku Klux Klan, through their use of former members in Congress, also carved out
their own place on the policy. While the KKK was opposed to any sort of government
interference in the sale of property altogether, their influence and opposition did come to affect
the final policy that passed. The final version of the Fair Housing Act included a provision to
exempt religious organizations from being affected by the anti-discrimination clause. This was to
the advantage of the Ku Klux Klan, who still held status as a religious organization in 1968.
Conclusions:
The contentious policy proposals of the Fair Housing Act are not those regarding
discrimination, rather the clauses detailing what anti-discrimination will look like. Interest
groups in favor of the bill were able to influence the FHA toward passage by coming together to
combine resources and membership bases. However, their success in passing anti-discrimination
laws in housing would come with heft bargaining in 1968, and in years to come. The National
Association of Realtors was not satisfied with the legal structure of the 1968 bill, and would
continue to be a force against Fair Housing for another twenty years. Additionally, the Fair
Housing Act had to be later amended in order to account for loopholes found by realtors and
13. Campbell 13
private citizens alike who wished to continue discrimination in housing. Despite present and
future challenges, the political and social climate of 1968 as well as the resolve of President
Johnson made the passage of the FHA much more realistic. While certain bargains were made in
order to appease powerful interest groups, the bill was passed with its main purpose intact: to
outlaw discrimination against those looking to purchase or rent a home.
14. Campbell 14
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