The document provides information about the OSI model and network protocols. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from the physical layer to the application layer. It explains the functions of each layer, such as the physical layer being responsible for transmitting binary digits between devices and the transport layer ensuring packets are not lost during transmission. It also discusses the differences between TCP and UDP network protocols, with TCP providing reliable transmission and UDP being faster but less reliable. The document defines MAC addresses as unique identifiers for network devices and how they differ from IP addresses.

1. OSI MODEL & NETWORK
PROTOCOLS

2.  OSI model has been used widely to describe the
network environment.
 OSI model describes how network hardware and
software operating together in the form of layers
to communicate with each other.
 OSI model also explains how the network
components must be functional and can be used
as a reference for detecting defects in the
network.
OSI LAYER

3. OSI Layer…Cont…
7. Lapisan Aplikasi
6. Lapisan Persembahan
5. Lapisan Session
4. Lapisan Pengangkutan
3. Lapisan Rangkaian
2. Lapisan Pautan Data
1. Lapisan Fizikal

4. OSI Model Layer Mnemonics
Application All Away
Presentation People Pizza
Session Seem Sausage
Transport To Throw
Network Need Not
Data-Link Data Do
Physical Processing Please
OSI Layer Down Up

5.  This layer is concerned with the physical
connection between devices.
 It includes factors such as network topology,
cable types, connector types, signal modulation
types.
 It is the physical layer that is directly responsible
for transmitting a stream of binary digits from
one device to another.
1) Physical Layer

6.  The Data Link layer is responsible for ensuring
the integrity of the bit streams that are transferred
to/from the physical layer from/to the network
layer.
 It is the data link layer that takes care of error
detection and correction through the re-
transmission of messages.
 Data link layers can provide both "connectionless"
and "connection oriented" services.
2) Data Link Layer

7.  In a connectionless system, each information
packet is treated as a self contained entity that is
transferred to a target node without a two-way
dialogue (connection) having been established.
(Dalam sistem tanpa sambungan, setiap paket maklumat dianggap
sebagai entiti terkandung sendiri yang dipindahkan ke nod sasaran
tanpa dialog dua hala (sambungan) setelah ditubuhkan.)
 In a connection oriented system, devices try to
establish a physical link before attempting data
transmission.
Data Link Layer…Cont…

8.  The network layer is primarily concerned with
message routing (or addressing) functions. (
 It is designed to establish and clear logical or
physical connections across the particular
network in use. (ia direka untuk menetapkan dan menjelaskan
Sambungan logik atau fizikal di seluruh rangkaian tertentu yang digunakan)
 Responsible for the packets transmission in the
network connection from the source to
destination.
3) Network Layer

9.  Network layer will ensure that each packet will
reach the destination efficiently. (Lapisan rangkaian akan
memastikan setiap paket akan sampai ke destinasi dengan jaya)
 To ensure that packets reach the destination
successfully network layer provides two
services, namely switching and routing. (Untuk
memastikan paket sampai ke destinasi dengan jaya Lapisan rangkaian menyediakan
2 perkhidmatan iaitu switching dan routing)
Network Layer…Cont…

10.  Transport layer, set the protocol to structure the
messenger and to check the validity of
transmission.
 Ensure that packets are not lost during
transmission and the packet is error-free, in
sequence, and not be copied.
 Transport layer is responsible for the overall
delivery of messages from the sender-to-
receiver.
4) Transport Layer

11.  The session layer, allowing the two applications
on two different computers, make contact and
end the relationship, which is named as the
session.
 This layer will identify the names and functions,
such as security, needed to allow two
applications to communicate on the network.
 make connection and operation with
Presentation Layer and Transport Layer.
5) Session Layer

12.  presentation layer, change the format of data
received from lower layers, to a format
acceptable to the higher layer processed by the
higher layers and vice versa.
 This layer provides for translation of code, a set
of characters, graphics characters, etc, to allow
both devices (transmitter and receiver) to
understand the particular transmission.
6) Presentation Layer

13.  Presentation layer is responsible for encrypt and
decrypt data for security purposes, compress
and expand data, if necessary, to enable more
efficient transmission. (Lapisan persembahan bertanggungjawab
dalam menginkrip dan dikrip data untuk tujuan keselamatan, memampat dan
memperluaskan data, jika perlu, untuk membolehkan transmisi yang lebih cekap)
Presentation Layer…Cont…

14.  It is a layer for the application process to
achieve network services.
 Application layer enables users to access
network computing.
7) Application Layer

15. The OSI Model
•The Application, Presentation and
Session layers are known as the Upper
Layers and are implemented in software
•The Transport and Network layer are
mainly concerned with protocols for
delivery and routing of packets and are
implemented in software as well
•The Data Link is implemented in hard-
and software
•The Physical layer is implemented in
hardware only, hence its name. These
lower two layers define LAN and WAN
specifications.
The layers of the model Demo
Upper Layers Demo
Lower Layers Demo

16. Communicate Through The OSI

17. Communicate Through The OSI…Cont…

18. The OSI Model
Flow of data through the OSI Model
A more detailed description of each layer
follows later, but here's what basically
happens when data passes from Host A to
Host B:
•The Application, Presentation and Session
layers take user input and converts it into data
•The Transport layer adds a segment header
converting the data into segments
•The Network layer adds a network header
and converts the segments into packets /
datagrams
•The Data Link layer adds a frame header
converting the packets/datagrams into
frames, the MAC sublayer converts the
frames into bits, which the Physical layer can
put on the wire.
•These steps are known as data
encapsulation.
•When the bits stream arrives at the
destination, the process is reversed and
each layer will remove their corresponding
header while the data flows up the OSI model
until it is converted back to data and
presented to the user.
•This is also known as decapsulation.

19. Communicate Through The OSI…Cont…

20. Summary of layers
2.20

21. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP AND
UDP
Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
• TCP is a connection oriented
protocol, which means the devices
should open a connection before
transmitting data and should close
the connection gracefully after
transmitting the data.
• TCP assure reliable delivery of
data to the destination.
• TCP protocol provides extensive
error checking mechanisms such
as flow control and
acknowledgment of data.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• UDP is Datagram oriented
protocol with no overhead for
opening a connection (using three-way h
, maintaining a connection, and
closing (terminating) a connection.
• UDP is efficient for
broadcast/multicast type of
network transmission.
• UDP has only the basic error
checking mechanism using
checksums.

22. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TCP AND
UDP
Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)
• Sequencing of data is a feature of
(TCP).
• Delivery of data is guaranteed if
you are using TCP.
• TCP is comparatively slow
because of these extensive error
checking mechanisms
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is
possible in TCP using
TCP port numbers.
• Retransmission of lost packets is
possible in TCP.
User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
• There is no sequencing of data in
UDP.
• The delivery of data cannot be
guaranteed in UDP.
• UDP is faster, simpler and more
efficient than TCP. However, UDP
it is less robust then TCP
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing is
possible in UDP using
UDP port numbers.
• There is no retransmission of lost
packets in UDP.

23. MAC ADDRESS
• MAC, Media Access Control address is a globally unique
identifier assigned to network devices, and therefore it is
often referred to as hardware or physical address.
• MAC addresses are 6-byte (48-bits) in length, and are
written in MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS format.
• The first 3-bytes are ID number of the manufacturer,
which is assigned by an Internet standards body. The
second 3-bytes are serial number assigned by the
manufacturer.

24. MAC ADDRESS
• MAC layer represents layer 2 of the TCP/IP (adopted
from OSI Reference Model), where IP represents layer
3.
• MAC address can be thought of as supporting hardware
implementation whereas IP address supports software
implementation. (Alamat MAC boleh dianggap sebagai
menyokong pelaksanaan perkakasan manakala alamat IP
menyokong pelaksanaan perisian. )

25. MAC ADDRESS
• MAC addresses are permanently burned into hardware
by hardware manufacturer, but IP addresses are
assigned to the network devices by a network
adminstrator.
• DHCP ( Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) relies
on MAC address to assign IP addresses to network
devices.

26. Identify the MAC address
• Operating Systems support various command-line and GUI utilities
to allow users to find MAC address of the system.
• On Unix variants including Solaris and Linux support "ifconfig -a", "ip
link list" or "ip address show" command that displays MAC address
of the network device among other useful information.
• Windows including NT, 2000, XP and 2003 support "ipconfig /all"
command that displays MAC address.
• On a MacOS, one can find MAC address by opening "System
Preferences", then selecting "Network".

27. Identify the MAC address

28. IP
• Responsible for end to end transmission
• Sends data in individual packets
• Maximum size of packet is determined by
the networks
– Fragmented if too large
• Unreliable
– Packets might be lost, corrupted, duplicated,
delivered out of order

29. INTERNET PROTOCOL
• IP is the network layer
– packet delivery service (host-to-host).
– translation between different data-link protocols
• IP provides connectionless, unreliable delivery of
IP datagrams.
– Connectionless: each datagram is independent of all
others.
– Unreliable: there is no guarantee that datagrams are
delivered correctly or even delivered at all.
 TCP/IP 29

30. IP Addresses
• IP addresses are not the same as the underlying data-
link (MAC) addresses.
• IP is a network layer - it must be capable of providing
communication between hosts on different kinds of
networks (different data-link implementations).
• The address must include information about what
network the receiving host is on. This is what makes
routing feasible.
 Why ?Why ?
 TCP/IP 30

31. TCP/IP

32. TCP/IP
►TCP/IP is the communication
protocol for the internet.
►TCP/IP defines the rules computers
must follow to communicate with
each other over the internet.
►Allows computers on different
networks to communicate with each
other.
►The computers could be on different
LANs in the same building or on two
LANs in different countries

33. TCP/IP
►TCP/IP stands for
Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet
Protocol.
►TCP/IP defines how
electronic devices (like
computers) should be
connected to the Internet,
and how data should be
transmitted between
them.

34. TCP/IP
►TCP is responsible for breaking data
down into IP packets, giving each packet a
sequence number and for assembling the
packets when they arrive.
►IP is responsible for sending the packets
to the correct destination.

35. TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having
four layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and
application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say
that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and application.
2.35

36. Difference between OSI and
TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model is not same as OSI model.
• OSI is a seven-layered standard, but TCP/IP is a four
layered standard.
• The OSI model has been very influential in the growth
and development of TCP/IP standard, and that is why
much OSI terminology is applied to TCP/IP.
• The following figure compares the TCP/IP and OSI
network models.

37. Difference between OSI and
TCP/IP model
As we can see from the above figure, presentation and session layers are not
there in TCP/IP model.
Also note that the Network Access Layer in TCP/IP model combines the functions
of Datalink Layer and Physical Layer.

38. The TCP/IP Core Protocols
•Certain sub protocols of the TCP/IP suite
•Operate in the Transport or Network layers
of the OSI Model

39. Internet Protocol (IP)
• Provides information about how and where data should
be delivered, including the data’s source and destination
addresses
• IP is the sub protocol that enables TCP/IP to
internetwork
• IP datagram acts as an envelope for data and contains
information necessary for routers to transfer data
between different LAN segments
• IP is an unreliable, connectionless protocol, which
means that it does not guarantee delivery of data

40. Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP)
• An Internet layer protocol that reports on
the success or failure of data delivery
• ICMP announcements provide critical
information for troubleshooting network
problems

41. Internet Control Message
Protocol
• ICMP is a protocol used for exchanging
control messages.
• ICMP uses IP to deliver messages.
• ICMP messages are usually generated and
processed by the IP software, not the user
process.
 TCP/IP 41

42. ICMP Message Types
• Echo Request
• Echo Response
• Destination Unreachable
• Redirect
• Time Exceeded
• Redirect (route change)
• there are more ...
 TCP/IP 42

43. IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol)
• Network layer protocol
• Manages multicasting
– Allows one node to send data to defined
group of nodes
• Uses
– Internet teleconferencing
– Routers sending traffic reports to each other

44. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• An Internet layer protocol that obtains the MAC (physical)
address of a host, or node, then creates a database that
maps the MAC address to the host’s IP (logical) address
• Dynamic ARP table entries are created when a client
makes an ARP request that cannot be satisfied by data
already in the ARP table
• Static ARP table entries are those that someone has
entered manually using the ARP utility
• ARP can be a valuable troubleshooting tool

45. ARP
• The Address Resolution Protocol is
used by a sending host when it knows the IP
address of the destination but needs the Ethernet
(or whatever) address.
• ARP is a broadcast protocol - every host on the
network receives the request.
• Each host checks the request against it’s IP
address - the right one responds.
• hosts remember the hardware addresses of each
other.
Arp Arp!
 TCP/IP 45

46. Mapping IP Addresses to
Hardware Addresses
• IP Addresses are not recognized by hardware.
• If we know the IP address of a host, how do we
find out the hardware address ?
• The process of finding the hardware address of a
host given the IP address is called
Address ResolutionAddress Resolution
 TCP/IP 46

47. ARP conversation
HEY - Everyone please listen!
Will 128.213.1.5 please send me
his/her Ethernet address?
not me
Hi Green! I’m 128.213.1.5, and
my Ethernet address is
87:A2:15:35:02:C3
 TCP/IP 47

48. Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol (RARP)
• Allow the client to send a broadcast message with its
MAC address and receive an IP address in reply
• RARP was originally developed as a means for
diskless workstations

49. TCP/IP ADDRESSING

50.  a unique number used by machines (computers)
to refer to each other when sending information
via the Internet.
 It consists of 4-byte addresses (w, x, y, z) to be
assigned to each node in the network. (
 Exp: 207.142.131.236
TCP/IP addressing

51.  Static IP address
 configuration IP address does not change when a
dialup connection to the Internet is done.
 Dynamic IP address
 configuration IP address is exchange when a dialup
connection to the Internet is done.
 Dynamic IP address will be given each time you login
(should have DHCP server).
TCP/IP addressing…Cont…

52.  Each IP address is divided into two parts, the
Network ID and Host ID.
 There are two ways to read the IP address,
which is binary and decimal.
 Binary numbers are represented by numbers 0 and 1.
 Decimal numbers are represented by 0 to 9.
TCP/IP addressing…Cont…

53. Network + 53
• IP addresses are assigned and used according to
very specific parameters
• Each IP address is a unique 32-bit number, divided
into four octets, or sets of 8-bits, that are separated
by periods
• An IP address contains two types of information:
network and host
• From the first octet you can determine the network
class
• Three types of network classes are used on modern
LANs: Class A, Class B, and Class C
TCP/IP (continued)

54. Network + 54
• IP Addresses specific parameters continued
• Class D and Class E addresses do exist, but are
rarely used
• Class D addresses are reserved for a special type
of transmission called multicasting
• Multicasting allows one device to send data to a
specific group of devices
TCP/IP (continued)

55. Network + 55
• IP Addresses specific parameters continued
• Some IP addresses are reserved for special functions,
like broadcasts, and cannot be assigned to machines or
devices
• 127 is not a valid first octet for any IP address
• The range of addresses beginning with 127 is reserved
for a device communicating with itself, or performing
loopback communication
TCP/IP (continued)

56. Binary and Dotted Decimal
Notation
• Decimal number between 0 and 255 represents each
binary octet
• Period (dot) separates each decimal
• Dotted decimal address has binary equivalent
– Converting each octet
– Remove decimal points

57. Subnet Mask
• Identifies every device on TCP/IP-based network
• 32-bit number (net mask)
– • Identifies device’s subnet
• Combines with device IP address
• Informs network about segment, network where device
attached
• Four octets (32 bits)
– • Expressed in binary or dotted decimal notation
• Assigned same way as IP addresses
– • Manually, or automatically (via DHCP)

58. Subnet Mask

59. Subnetting
• Subdividing network single class into multiple, smaller
logical networks (segments)
– Control network traffic
– Make best use of limited number of IP addresses
• Subnet mask varies depending on subnetting
– Nonsubnetted networks use defaults

60. Public/Private IP addressing
– Computers on private LANs do not need a public IP
addresses, since they do not need to be accessed by
the public.
– Therefore, certain addresses that will never be
registered publicly are reserved. These are known as
private IP addresses, and are found in the following
ranges:
– From 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
From 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
From 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

61. Public/Private IP addressing
►Devices with private IP addresses cannot connect
directly to the Internet
►Computers outside the network cannot access devices
with a private IP address.
►Access must be obtained through a router.

62. Addressing in IPv6
• Known as IP next generation, or Ipng is slated to replace
the current IP protocol, IPv4
• IPv6 offers several advantages over IPv4, including a
more efficient header, better security, better prioritization
allowances, and automatic IP address configuration
• The most valuable advantage IPv6 offers is its promise
of billions and billions of additional IP addresses through
its new addressing scheme

63. Addressing in IPv6
• The most notable difference between IP addresses in
IPv4 and IPv6 is their size
• IPv4 addresses are composed of 32 bits, IPv6 are
eight 16-bit fields and total 128 bits
• IPv4 address contains binary numbers separated by a
period, each field in an IPv6 address contains
hexadecimal numbers separated by a colon

64. IPv6 advantages
• More efficient header, better security, better prioritization
provisions, automatic IP address configuration
• Billions of additional IP addresses

65. Difference between IPv4 and
IPv6 addresses
• Size
– IPv4: 32 bits
– IPv6: eight 16-bit fields (128 bits)
– IPv6: 296
(4 billion times 4 billion times 4 billion)
available IP addresses
• Representation
– IPv4: binary numbers separated by period
– IPv6: hexadecimal numbers separated by colon
– IPv6 shorthand: “::” any number of multiple, zero-
value fields

66. Form of IP Addressing
Unicast
– Unicast is communication between a single sender and a single
receiver over a network.
– It can be used for both sending and receiving.
– Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses, each
for its own distinct purpose.
– Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the
sender to send all the data many times over, once for each
recipient.

67. Unicast
• Unicast messaging is used for all network
processes in which a private or unique
resource is requested.

68. Broadcast
• Broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that
will be received (conceptually) by every device
on the network.
• In practice, the scope of the broadcast is limited
to a broadcast domain.
• Contrast with unicasting and multicasting.
• Not all computer networks support broadcasting;
for example, neither X.25 nor frame relay supply
a broadcast capability, nor is there any form of
Internet-wide broadcast.

69. • to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts
broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data
only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. (untuk
menghantar data ke semua destinasi yang mungkin ("semua-host siaran"), yang
membolehkan penghantar untuk menghantar data hanya sekali, dan semua penerima
menerima salinannya)
Broadcast

70. Multicast
• Multicast is communication between a single
sender and multiple receivers on a network.
• The word "multicast" is typically used to refer to
IP multicast which is often employed for
streaming media and Internet television
applications.
• A multicast address is associated with a group
of interested receivers. (Alamat Multicast adalah berkaitan
dengan sekumpulan penerima)

71. Multicast
– The sender sends a single datagram (from the sender's unicast
address) to the multicast address, and the intermediary routers
take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that
have registered their interest in data from that sender. (Penghantar
menghantar datagram tunggal (dari alamat penghantar Unicast) ke alamat Multicast,
dan router perantara mengurus dalam membuat salinan dan menghantarnya kepada
semua penerima yang telah berdaftar untuk mendapatkan data dari penghantar itu)
– In IP multicast the implementation of the multicast concept occurs
at the IP routing level, where routers create optimal distribution
paths for datagrams sent to a multicast destination address
spanning tree in real-time.

72. How IP Addresses are obtained
 Static
– IP address manually assigned to a device.
– manageable for small networks.
– requires careful checks to avoid IP conflict.
 Dynamic
– IP address automatically assigned by server when
host boots.
– derived automatically from a range of addresses.

73. Static IP addressing
►A static IP address is
where the computers are
given a fixed IP address
that never changes.
►The computer always
keeps the same address
every time it connects to
the Internet.

74. Dynamic IP addressing
►There are only a limited number of IP addresses. ISPs
use dynamic IP addressing to get around the problem.
►A dynamic IP address is when computers on a network
are given an IP address when they are connected to the
network for that session. It can change each time they
are connected.

75. Benefits of Dynamic IP addressing
►Less security risk-
computer is assigned
a new IP address
each time you
connect to a network.

76. Static and Automatic IP Address
• Static IP address
– Manually typed into each device
– Modify client workstation TCP/IP properties
• Automatic IP addressing
– BOOTP and DHCP
– Reduce duplication error

77. Viewing Current IP Information
Figure : Example
of an IP
configuration
window

78. Viewing Current IP Information
Figure: IP
address
information
on a
Windows
2000
workstation

79. DHCP
• DHCP, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is a
communications protocol that dynamically assigns unique
IP addresses to network devices.
• A DHCP server also provides network gateway, subnet
masks, name server addresses and amount of time
("lease") that a given IP address will be valid.
• To enable the client in a network get the IP and other
information such as gateway, DNS server and WINS
server automatically when booted. (Membolehkan client di
dalam sebuah network mendapat IP dan maklumat lain seperti
gateway, DNS server dan WINS server secara automatik apabila
dibootkan)

80. DHCP
•As a network device joins or leaves an IP-based network,
DHCP automatically renews or releases an IP address.
•DHCP runs in a client/server mode, where server sets up a
pool of available IP addresses for a network.
•Easy to control a IP conflict because duplicate IP will not occur.
(Konflik IP mudah untuk dikawal kerana IP duplicate tidak akan
berlaku)
•DHCP allows network administrators centrally manage and
automate the assignment of the IP addresses without having to
worry about assigning duplicate addresses, making network
administration a lot easier to manage.

81. • Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may
have three methods of allocating IP-addresses:
– dynamic allocation: A network administrator assigns a
range of IP addresses to DHCP, and each client computer
on the LAN has its IP software configured to request an IP
address from the DHCP server during network
initialization.
– automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently
assigns a free IP address to a requesting client from the
range defined by the administrator.
– static allocation: The DHCP server allocates an IP
address based on a table with MAC address/IP address
pairs, which are manually filled in (perhaps by a network
administrator).

82. DNS
 DNS is a database system that functions in the
transport layer.
 It is used to make mapping a name-to-address
of client applications.
 DNS server control the database that contains
the structure of domain names that the device
can be identified.

83. • It translates domain names meaningful to humans into
the numerical (binary) identifiers for the purpose
oflocating and addressing these devices.
• An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name
System is that it serves as the "phone book" for the
Internet by translating human-friendly computer
hostnames into IP addresses.
• For example, www.example.com translates to
192.0.32.10.

84. DNS
• The DNS makes it possible to assign domain names to
groups of Internet users in a meaningful way,
independent of each user's physical location.
• Internet domain names are easier to remember than IP
addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or
2001:db8::1f70:6e8 (IPv6).
• People take advantage of this when they recite
meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without having
to know how the machine will actually locate them.

85. FTP
 FTP is used to transfer files between nodes on the
network.
 Ia juga membolehkan pengguna menjalankan proses ke
atas host yang berada jauh (remote host).
 FTP allows users to log-in on the remote host.

86. FTP..CONT..
 FTP works in the following three highest levels
of the OSI model:
 In the Session Layer, FTP provides session
management, dealing with the connection establish,
transfer files, and disconnect. (Di Lapisan Session, FTP
menyediakan pentadbiran session, menangani pembinaan sambungan,
mengalihkan fail, dan memutuskan sambungan)
 In the Presentation Layer, FTP manage a
translations. (Di Lapisan Persembahan, FTP menguruskan
penterjemahan)
 In the application layer, this protocol provides network
services, especially file services. (Di Lapisan Aplikasi, protokol
ini menyediakan perkhidmatan rangkaian, terutamanya perkhidmatan fail)

87. SMTP
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet
standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission across
Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
• SMTP is specified for outgoing mail transport and uses TCP
port 25.
• While electronic mail servers and other mail transfer agents
use SMTP to send and receive mail messages, user-level
client mail applications typically only use SMTP for sending
messages to a mail server for relaying.
 SMTP adalah protokol untuk route utusan-utusan e-mail.

88. SMTP
• For receiving messages, client
applications usually use either the Post
Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or a
proprietary system (such as Microsoft
Exchange or Lotus Notes/Domino) to
access their mail box accounts on a mail
server.

89. POP3
 The Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer
Internet standard protocol used by local e-mail clients to
retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP
connection.
 used to collect e-mail stored in mail boxes for each user
on the mail server. (Berperanan untuk mengambil email yang tersimpan dalam
mail box tiap user di mail server)
 Temporarily store the user email in their mail box before
it was download. (Menyimpan sementara email setiap user dalam mail box masing-
masing sebelum di download)

90. • POP and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
are the two most prevalent Internet standard protocols
for e-mail retrieval.
• Virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers support
both.
• The POP protocol has been developed through
several versions, with version 3 (POP3) being the
current standard.
• POP3 is used for most mail clients such as gmail and
yahoo.

91. STANDARD IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET
FRAME

92. Standard IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET
Frame
• IEEE 802.3 is a collection of IEEE standards defining the
Physical Layer and Data Link Layer's media access
control (MAC) sub layer of wired Ethernet. (IEEE 802.3
adalah koleksi piawaian IEEE yang mentakrifkan Lapisan Fizikal dan
kawalan akses media(MAC) bagi Data Link Layer untuk sub lapisan
berwayar Ethernet.)
• This is generally a LAN technology with some WAN
applications.
• Physical connections are made between nodes and/or
infrastructure devices (hubs, switches, routers) by
various types of cable.(Sambungan fizikal dibuat antara nod dan /
atau peranti infrastruktur (hub, switch, router) dengan pelbagai jenis kabel)

93. Standard IEEE 802.3 ETHERNET
Frame
• 802.3 is a technology that supports the IEEE 802.1
network architecture.
• The maximum packet size is 1518 bytes, although to
allow the Q-tag for Virtual LAN and priority data in
802.3ac it is extended to 1522 bytes. (Saiz paket maksimum
adalah 1518 bytes, walaupun untuk membenarkan Q-tag untuk Virtual LAN
dan data keutamaan dalam 802.3ac ia diperluaskan kepada 1522 bytes.)
• If the upper layer protocol submits a protocol data unit
(PDU) less than 64 bytes, 802.3 will pad the data field to
achieve the minimum 64 bytes. (Jika protokol lapisan atas
mengemukakan satu unit protokol data (PDU) kurang daripada 64 byte,
802.3 akan menyampaikan data field untuk mencapai minimum 64 byte.)
• The minimum Frame size will then always be of 64
bytes.

96. NETWORK PROTOCOL

97.  Trailer
TCP/IP

98.  Protokol utama di Lapisan Rangkaian bagi
NetWare ialah IPX. IPX akan berurusan dengan
pengalamatan (alamat rangkaian logik dan
perkhidmatan), pemilihan route, dan
perkhidmatan penyambungan. IPX menyediakan
perkhidmatan yang dikenali sebagai ‘datagram
tanpa-sambungan’; iaitu data akan dihantar
keseluruh segmen rangkaian, bukan dihantar
terus dalam sambungan.
IPX/SPX

99.  SPX adalah protokol Lapisan Pengangkutan
yang menambahkan keupayaan IPX. Protokol ini
terlibat dalam pengalamatan, pembinaan
segmen, dan khidmat sambungan (jujukan
segmen, kawalan ralat, kawalan aliran hujung-
ke-hujung).
 SPX akan digunakan apabila IPX tidak dapat
digunakan, seperti untuk server pencetak. SPX
adalah lebih baik dari IPX dari segi
mengenalpasti sambungan, iaitu apabila
sesuatu peket sampai ke destinasinya yang
betul maka penerimaan akan dimaklumkan;
tetapi jika sistem penerima tidak menghantar
maklumbalas penerimaan maka peket itu akan
dihantar semula. Kelemahan IPX ialah ia tidak
IPX/SPX

100.  IPX performs functions at layers 3 and 4 of the
OSI model. It controls the assignment of IPX
addresses (software addressing) on individual
nodes, governs packet delivery across
internetworks, and makes routing decisions
based on information provided by the routing
protocols, RIP or NLSP. IPX is a connectionless
protocol (similar to TCP/IP’s UDP), so it doesn’t
require any acknowledgment that packets were
received from the destination node. To
communicate with the upper-layer protocols, IPX
uses sockets . These are similar to TCP/IP ports
in that they’re used to address multiple,
independent applications running on the same
machine.
IPX/SPX

101.  SPX SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) adds
connection-oriented communications to the
otherwise connectionless IPX. Through it, upper-
layer protocols can ensure data delivery
between source and destination nodes. SPX
works by creating virtual circuits or connections
between machines, with each connection having
a specific connection ID included in the SPX
header.
IPX/SPX

102.  Trailer
NetBIOS & NetBEUI

103.  AppleTalk adalah nama yang diberi kepada suite
protokol yang direkabentuk untuk komputer
Apple Macintosh.
Apple Talk

104. Apple Talk…Cont…

105. Protocol

106. IPv6
• 128 bit addresses
– Make it feasible to be very wasteful with
address allocations
• Lots of other new features
– Built-in autoconfiguration, security options, …
• Not really in production use yet

107. TCP/IP Classes
Class type Address range
class A 1 to 126
class B 128 to 191
class C 192 to 223
class D 224 to 239.
class E 240 to 255.

108.  Class A first bit must start with 0.
 Class B 2 initial bit must start with 10.
 Class C 3 initial bit must start with 110.
 Class D 4 initial bit must start with 1110.
 Class E 4 initial bit must start with 1111.

109.  The first bit must be 0 refers to the eight bits in
‘w’. So, the bits starting from 00000000 to
01111111. (Bit yang pertama mesti 0 merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka
nilai bit bermula dari 00000000 sehingga 01111111)
 IP class A from 0 to 127 BUT the value 0 is the
network number and can not be used and the
value 127 is local loop back (used to perform
tests on themselves, such as using the ping
command on its own IP address), also can not
be used. So IP class A from 1 to 126. (IP kelas A
bermula dari 0 hingga 127 TETAPI nilai 0 merupakan network number dan tidak
boleh digunakan dan 127 merupakan local loop back (digunakan untuk melakukan
ujian terhadap diri sendiri seperti menggunakan arahan ping pada alamat IP sendiri),
juga tidak boleh digunakan. Oleh itu IP kelas A bermula dari 1 sehingga 126)
 Exp:1.10.134.8, 13.233.222.32
Class A

110.  2 initial bits is 10 (from right), referring to the
eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from
10000000 to 10111111. (2 bit permulaan mestilah 10 (dari
sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 10000000
sehingga 10111111)
 class B IP address range starting from 128 to
191. (julat alamat IP kelas B bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 155.76.76.8
Class B

111.  3 initial bits is 110 (from right), referring to the
eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from
11000000 to 11011111. (23bit permulaan mestilah 110 (dari
sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 10000000
sehingga 11011111)
 class C IP address range starting from 192 to
223. (julat alamat IP kelas C bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 200.56.17.8
Class C

112.  4 initial bits is 1110 (from right), referring to the
eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from
11100000 to 11101111. (4 bit permulaan mestilah 1110 (dari
sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 11100000
sehingga 11101111)
 class D IP address range starting from 224 to
239. (julat alamat IP kelas D bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 230.76.76.8
Class D

113.  4 initial bits is 1111 (from right), referring to the
eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from
11110000 to 11111111. (4 bit permulaan mestilah 10 (dari
sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 11110000
sehingga 11111111)
 class E IP address range starting from 240 to
255. (julat alamat IP kelas E bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 243.76.76.8
Class E

114. TCP/IP Classes…Cont…

115.  Subnet is a calculation mechanism that used in
the network system for breaking the network into
classes of IP addresses for security purposes
and distribution of working groups. (SUBNET ialah satu
mekanisma pengiraan yang digunakan dalam sistem rangkaian bagi memecahkan
rangkaian dalam kelas-kelas IP address bagi tujuan keselamatan dan pembahagian
kumpulan-kumpulan kerja)
 Also used to distinguish the network ID and host
ID. (Juga digunakan untuk membezakan network ID dan host ID)
 IP class A 255.0.0.0
IP class B 255.255.0.0
IP class C 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask

116.  Public
– any IP address that is not in any of the private networking schemes
and is routable on the Internet.
 Private
– There are some specific address in each class of IP addresses that
can not be used because each packet with this destination address
will not be continued on the Internet. (Terdapat beberapa alamat tertentu
dalam setiap kelas IP address yang tidak dapat digunakan karena setiap paket
dengan alamat tujuan ini tidak akan diteruskan di internet)
– Private addresses can be used by the host using the network the
address translation (NAT), or a proxy server to connected to a
public network; or by the host that not connected to the Internet.
(Private addresses dapat digunakan oleh host yang menggunakan network address
translation (NAT), atau sebuah proxy server, untuk terhubung ke sebuah public
network; atau oleh host yang sama sekali tidak terhubung ke Internet)
Public & Private IP Address

118.  Unicast
– It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver,
and can be used for both sending and receiving. (Biasanya
merujuk pada satu penghantar atau penerima tunggal, dan boleh digunakan untuk
kedua-dua menghantar dan menerima)
– Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast
addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. (Beberapa PC
individu mempunyai beberapa alamat Unicast yang berbeza, setiapnya untuk tujuan
yang berbeza)
– Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses
requires the sender to send all the data many times
over, once for each recipient. (Menghantar data yang sama untuk
beberapa alamat Unicast menghendaki penghantar untuk menghantar semua data
berkali-kali, sekali untuk setiap penerima)
Form of IP Addressing

119.  Broadcast
– to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts
broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data
only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. (untuk
menghantar data ke semua destinasi yang mungkin ("semua-host siaran"), yang membolehkan
penghantar untuk menghantar data hanya sekali, dan semua penerima menerima salinannya)
– In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made
by combining the network prefix with a host suffix
composed entirely of binary 1s.
– For example, the destination address used for a
directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24
network is 192.0.2.255.
Form of IP Addressing…Cont…

120.  Multicast
– A multicast address is associated with a group of
interested receivers. (Alamat Multicast adalah berkaitan dengan
sekumpulan penerima)
– The sender sends a single datagram (from the sender's
unicast address) to the multicast address, and the
intermediary routers take care of making copies and
sending them to all receivers that have registered their
interest in data from that sender. (Penghantar menghantar datagram
tunggal (dari alamat penghantar Unicast) ke alamat Multicast, dan router perantara
mengurus dalam membuat salinan dan menghantarnya kepada semua penerima
yang telah berdaftar untuk mendapatkan data dari penghantar itu)
Form of IP Addressing…Cont…

121.  Static
– IP address manually assigned to a device. (Alamat IP
ditentukan secara manual kepada peranti)
– manageable for small networks. (diuruskan untuk rangkaian yang
kecil)
– requires careful checks to avoid IP conflict. (memerlukan
pemeriksaan yang teliti untuk mengelakkan konflik IP)
 Dynamic
– IP address automatically assigned by server when host
boots. (Alamat IP ditentukan secara automatik oleh server apabila hos dibootkan)
– derived automatically from a range of addresses. (diturunkan
secara automatik dari julat alamat)
How IP Addresses are obtained

122. NETWORK SERVICES

123.  To enable the client in a network get the IP and
other information such as gateway, DNS server
and WINS server automatically when booted.
(Membolehkan client di dalam sebuah network mendapat IP dan maklumat lain
seperti gateway, DNS server dan WINS server secara automatik apabila dibootkan)
 Easy to control a IP conflict because duplicate IP
will not occur. (Konflik IP mudah untuk dikawal kerana IP duplicate tidak
akan berlaku)
DHCP

124.  DNS is a database system that functions in the
transport layer. (DNS adalah sistem pangkalan data yang berfungsi di
Lapisan Pengangkutan)
 It is used to make mapping a name-to-address
of client applications. (Ia digunakan untuk membuat pemetaan
nama-ke-alamat bagi aplikasi client)
 DNS server control the database that contains
the structure of domain names that the device
can be identified. (Server DNS mengawal pangkalan data yang
mengandungi struktur nama domin supaya peranti tersebut dapat dikenalpasti)
DNS

125.  FTP is used to transfer files between nodes on
the network. (FTP digunakan untuk mengalihkan fail di antara nod dalam
rangkaian)
 Ia juga membolehkan pengguna menjalankan
proses ke atas host yang berada jauh (remote
host).
 FTP allows users to log-in on the remote host.
(FTP membolehkan pengguna log-in pada remote host)
FTP

126.  FTP works in the following three highest levels of
the OSI model:
 In the Session Layer, FTP provides session
management, dealing with the connection establish,
transfer files, and disconnect. (Di Lapisan Session, FTP
menyediakan pentadbiran session, menangani pembinaan sambungan,
mengalihkan fail, dan memutuskan sambungan)
 In the Presentation Layer, FTP manage a translations.
(Di Lapisan Persembahan, FTP menguruskan penterjemahan)
 In the application layer, this protocol provides network
services, especially file services. (Di Lapisan Aplikasi, protokol ini
menyediakan perkhidmatan rangkaian, terutamanya perkhidmatan fail)
FTP…Cont…

127.  SMTP adalah protokol untuk route utusan-
utusan e-mail.
 Ia beroperasi di Lapisan Aplikasi. SMTP
menggunakan protokol TCP dan IP untuk route
utusan e-mail dalam rangkaian.
SMTP

128.  used to collect e-mail stored in mail boxes for
each user on the mail server. (Berperanan untuk mengambil
email yang tersimpan dalam mail box tiap user di mail server)
 Temporarily store the user email in their mail box
before it was download. (Menyimpan sementara email setiap user
dalam mail box masing-masing sebelum di download)
POP3

129. Sockets and Ports
• Every process on a machine is assigned a port number and the
process’s port number plus its host machine’s IP address equals
the process’s socket
• The use of port numbers simplifies TCP/IP communications and
ensures that data are transmitted to the correct application
• Port numbers range from 0 to 65,539 and are divided by IANA into
three types:
•Well Known Ports,
•Registered Ports, and
•Dynamic and/or Private Ports

131. • Well Known Ports are in the range of 0 to 1023 and
are assigned to processes that only the operating
system or an Administrator of the system can access
• Registered Ports are in the range of 1024 to 49151.
These ports are accessible to network users and
processes that do not have special administrative
privileges
• Dynamic and/or Private Ports are those from 49152
through 65535 and are open for use without
restriction