Family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) is generally characterized by typical legume fruit and the ability to symbiotically fix nitrogen. Among the three subfamilies, Papilionoideae is the largest and possesses the lion’s share of economically important legumes including pulses and forages. Although monophyletic origin is generally considered, traces of polyphyly and paraphyly are evidenced in the subfamilies Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae by molecular phylogenetic studies. Development of robust cytogenetic stocks (aneuploids, polyploids, chromosomal aberrations, somaclonal variants, transformants, etc.) and novel functional genomic tools (mutants, molecular markers, DNA libraries, barcode sequences, etc.) have paved the way to legume classical and molecular breeding for high-yield, nutritional quality, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and enhancement of its bioactive natural antioxidants.
Structure, Development & Function of PeridermFatima Ramay
A group of secondary tissues forming a protective layer which replaces the epidermis of many plant stems, roots, and other parts.
Although periderm may develop in leaves and fruits, its main function is to protects stems and roots.
The periderm consists of three different layers:
Phelloderm
Phellogen (cork cambium)
Phellem (cork)
Its main function is to protect the underlying tissues from:
Desiccation
Freezing
Heat injury
Mechanical destruction
Disease
Loss of epidermis.
Bounding tissue restricting the pathogen & insects.
Allowing gaseous exchange through lenticels.
Family Leguminosae (Fabaceae) is generally characterized by typical legume fruit and the ability to symbiotically fix nitrogen. Among the three subfamilies, Papilionoideae is the largest and possesses the lion’s share of economically important legumes including pulses and forages. Although monophyletic origin is generally considered, traces of polyphyly and paraphyly are evidenced in the subfamilies Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae by molecular phylogenetic studies. Development of robust cytogenetic stocks (aneuploids, polyploids, chromosomal aberrations, somaclonal variants, transformants, etc.) and novel functional genomic tools (mutants, molecular markers, DNA libraries, barcode sequences, etc.) have paved the way to legume classical and molecular breeding for high-yield, nutritional quality, biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, and enhancement of its bioactive natural antioxidants.
Structure, Development & Function of PeridermFatima Ramay
A group of secondary tissues forming a protective layer which replaces the epidermis of many plant stems, roots, and other parts.
Although periderm may develop in leaves and fruits, its main function is to protects stems and roots.
The periderm consists of three different layers:
Phelloderm
Phellogen (cork cambium)
Phellem (cork)
Its main function is to protect the underlying tissues from:
Desiccation
Freezing
Heat injury
Mechanical destruction
Disease
Loss of epidermis.
Bounding tissue restricting the pathogen & insects.
Allowing gaseous exchange through lenticels.
economic importance of gymnosperms.Gymnosperms are simple and primitive seed-bearing plants without flowers.
The plant body is sporophytic and is differentiated into root,stem and leaves.
All gymnosperms are usually wind-pollinated.
Leaves have thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
Gymnosperms are heterosporous.magasporangia and microsporangia occur on mega and microsporophylls respectively.
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed.
Pteridophytes are vascular plants and have leaves (known as fronds), roots and sometimes true stems, and tree ferns have full trunks. Examples include ferns, horsetails and club-mosses. Fronds in the largest species of ferns can reach some six metres in length!
Many ferns from tropical rain forests are epiphytes, which means they only grow on other plant species; their water comes from the damp air or from rainfall running down branches and tree trunks. There are also some purely aquatic ferns such as water fern or water velvet (Salvinia molesta) and mosquito ferns (Azolla species).
Pteridophytes do not have seeds or flowers either, instead they also reproduce via spores.
There are around 13,000 species of Pteridophytes.
The manner of distribution of placentae on the ovary wall is called placentation
the presentation includes the types and details about the placentation along with photos and labled diagrams.
Brassicaceae (/ˌbræsɪˈkeɪsii/) or Cruciferae (/kruːˈsɪfəri/)[2] is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, some shrubs, with simple, although sometimes deeply incised, alternatingly set leaves without stipules or in leaf rosettes, with terminal inflorescences without bracts, containing flowers with four free sepals, four free alternating petals, two short and four longer free stamens, and a fruit with seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall (or septum).
The family contains 372 genera and 4,060 accepted species.[3] The largest genera are Draba (440 species), Erysimum (261 species), Lepidium (234 species), Cardamine (233 species), and Alyssum (207 species).
The family contains the cruciferous vegetables, including species such as Brassica oleracea (e.g. broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, collards), Brassica rapa (turnip, Chinese cabbage, etc.), Brassica napus (rapeseed, etc.), Raphanus sativus (common radish), Armoracia rusticana (horseradish), but also a cut-flower Matthiola (stock) and the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress).
Pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. Trichoplusia ni (cabbage looper) moth is also becoming increasingly problematic for crucifers due to its resistance to commonly used pest control methods.[4] Some rarer Pieris butterflies, such as Pieris virginiensis, depend upon native mustards for their survival, in their native habitats. Some non-native mustards, such as garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, an extremely invasive species in the United States, can be toxic to their larvae.
Alternation of generation in archegoniatesSumit Sangwan
Altrenation of generations:
All plants undergo a life cycle that takes them through both haploid and diploid generations. The multicellular diploid plant structure is called the sporophyte, which produces spores through meiotic (asexual) division. The multicellular haploid plant structure is called the gametophyte, which is formed from the spore and give rise to the haploid gametes. The fluctuation between these diploid and haploid stages that occurs in plants is called the alternation of generations.
Bryophyte generations
Bryophytes are nonvascularized plants that are still dependent on a moist environment for survival (see Plant Classification, Bryophytes . Like all plants, the bryophyte life cycle goes through both haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) stages. The gametophyte comprises the main plant (the green moss or liverwort), while the diploid sporophyte is much smaller and is attached to the gametophyte. The haploid stage, in which a multicellular haploid gametophyte develops from a spore and produces haploid gametes, is the dominant stage in the bryophyte life cycle. The mature gametophyte produces both male and female gametes, which join to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte, which extends from the gametophyte and produces haploid spores through meiosis. Once the spores germinate, they produce new gametophyte plants and the cycle continues.
Tracheophyte Generations
Tracheophytes are plants that contain vascular tissue; two of the major classes of tracheophytes are gymnosperms (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). Tracheophytes, unlike bryophytes, have developed seeds that encase and protect their embryos. The dominant phase in the tracheophyte life cycle is the diploid (sporophyte) stage. The gametophytes are very small and cannot exist independent of the parent plant. The reproductive structures of the sporophyte (cones in gymnosperms and flowers in angiosperms), produce two different kinds of haploid spores: microspores (male) and megaspores (female). This phenomenon of sexually differentiated spores is called heterospory. These spores give rise to similarly sexually differentiated gametophytes, which in turn produce gametes. Fertilization occurs when a male and female gamete join to form a zygote. The resulting embryo, encased in a seed coating, will eventually become a new sporophyte.
The Cucurbitaceae, also called cucurbits or the gourd family, are a plant family consisting of about 965 species in around 95 genera, of which the most important to humans are: Cucurbita – squash,
In botany · Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) · In common language usage, "fruit" normally means the seed-associated
economic importance of gymnosperms.Gymnosperms are simple and primitive seed-bearing plants without flowers.
The plant body is sporophytic and is differentiated into root,stem and leaves.
All gymnosperms are usually wind-pollinated.
Leaves have thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
Gymnosperms are heterosporous.magasporangia and microsporangia occur on mega and microsporophylls respectively.
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed.
Pteridophytes are vascular plants and have leaves (known as fronds), roots and sometimes true stems, and tree ferns have full trunks. Examples include ferns, horsetails and club-mosses. Fronds in the largest species of ferns can reach some six metres in length!
Many ferns from tropical rain forests are epiphytes, which means they only grow on other plant species; their water comes from the damp air or from rainfall running down branches and tree trunks. There are also some purely aquatic ferns such as water fern or water velvet (Salvinia molesta) and mosquito ferns (Azolla species).
Pteridophytes do not have seeds or flowers either, instead they also reproduce via spores.
There are around 13,000 species of Pteridophytes.
The manner of distribution of placentae on the ovary wall is called placentation
the presentation includes the types and details about the placentation along with photos and labled diagrams.
Brassicaceae (/ˌbræsɪˈkeɪsii/) or Cruciferae (/kruːˈsɪfəri/)[2] is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. Most are herbaceous plants, some shrubs, with simple, although sometimes deeply incised, alternatingly set leaves without stipules or in leaf rosettes, with terminal inflorescences without bracts, containing flowers with four free sepals, four free alternating petals, two short and four longer free stamens, and a fruit with seeds in rows, divided by a thin wall (or septum).
The family contains 372 genera and 4,060 accepted species.[3] The largest genera are Draba (440 species), Erysimum (261 species), Lepidium (234 species), Cardamine (233 species), and Alyssum (207 species).
The family contains the cruciferous vegetables, including species such as Brassica oleracea (e.g. broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, collards), Brassica rapa (turnip, Chinese cabbage, etc.), Brassica napus (rapeseed, etc.), Raphanus sativus (common radish), Armoracia rusticana (horseradish), but also a cut-flower Matthiola (stock) and the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress).
Pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. Trichoplusia ni (cabbage looper) moth is also becoming increasingly problematic for crucifers due to its resistance to commonly used pest control methods.[4] Some rarer Pieris butterflies, such as Pieris virginiensis, depend upon native mustards for their survival, in their native habitats. Some non-native mustards, such as garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, an extremely invasive species in the United States, can be toxic to their larvae.
Alternation of generation in archegoniatesSumit Sangwan
Altrenation of generations:
All plants undergo a life cycle that takes them through both haploid and diploid generations. The multicellular diploid plant structure is called the sporophyte, which produces spores through meiotic (asexual) division. The multicellular haploid plant structure is called the gametophyte, which is formed from the spore and give rise to the haploid gametes. The fluctuation between these diploid and haploid stages that occurs in plants is called the alternation of generations.
Bryophyte generations
Bryophytes are nonvascularized plants that are still dependent on a moist environment for survival (see Plant Classification, Bryophytes . Like all plants, the bryophyte life cycle goes through both haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) stages. The gametophyte comprises the main plant (the green moss or liverwort), while the diploid sporophyte is much smaller and is attached to the gametophyte. The haploid stage, in which a multicellular haploid gametophyte develops from a spore and produces haploid gametes, is the dominant stage in the bryophyte life cycle. The mature gametophyte produces both male and female gametes, which join to form a diploid zygote. The zygote develops into the diploid sporophyte, which extends from the gametophyte and produces haploid spores through meiosis. Once the spores germinate, they produce new gametophyte plants and the cycle continues.
Tracheophyte Generations
Tracheophytes are plants that contain vascular tissue; two of the major classes of tracheophytes are gymnosperms (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants). Tracheophytes, unlike bryophytes, have developed seeds that encase and protect their embryos. The dominant phase in the tracheophyte life cycle is the diploid (sporophyte) stage. The gametophytes are very small and cannot exist independent of the parent plant. The reproductive structures of the sporophyte (cones in gymnosperms and flowers in angiosperms), produce two different kinds of haploid spores: microspores (male) and megaspores (female). This phenomenon of sexually differentiated spores is called heterospory. These spores give rise to similarly sexually differentiated gametophytes, which in turn produce gametes. Fertilization occurs when a male and female gamete join to form a zygote. The resulting embryo, encased in a seed coating, will eventually become a new sporophyte.
The Cucurbitaceae, also called cucurbits or the gourd family, are a plant family consisting of about 965 species in around 95 genera, of which the most important to humans are: Cucurbita – squash,
In botany · Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) · In common language usage, "fruit" normally means the seed-associated
this data prepared for pharmacy students. it includes:
1.Brief introduction to fruits (definition + function+ classification).
2. General characters of family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae).
2. Fennel (Origin, Morphology, microscopical characters, T.S., Active constituents & uses)
----------------
Prepared by: Mahmoud sallam (Assistant lecturer of pharmacognosy at Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Azhar University)
lab 1: introduction to flowers + clove, for second year pharmacy students, Al-Azhar University by Dr Mahmoud Sallam demonstrator at pharmacognosy department.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
1. Placentation:
Placenta is a ridge of tissue in the inner wall of the ovary
bearing one or more ovules; and the manner of distribution
of the placentae within the ovary is called placentation.
The placentae most frequently develop on the margins of
carpels either along their whole line of union called the
suture, or at their base or apex.
Types of Placentation: In the simple ovary (of one carpel)
there is one common type of placentation known as
marginal, and in the compound ovary placentation may be
axile, central, parietal, basal or superficial.
(1) Marginal: In marginal placentation the ovary is one-
chambered and the placenta develops along the junction of
the two margins of the carpel,
the ventral suture, as in pea, wild pea, gram, gold mohur,
Cassia, sensitive plant, etc. In Ranunculus the pistil is
apocarpous, and each ovary bears a single pendulous ovule
attached to the ventral suture.
(2) Axile: In the axile placentation the ovary is two to
many-chambered—usually as many as the number of
carpels—and the placentae bearing the ovules develop
from the central axis corresponding to the confluent
margins of carpels, and hence the name axile (lying in the
axis), as in potato, tomato, Petunia, China rose, lady’s finger,
hollyhock (Althaea), lemon, orange, etc. Three-chambered
ovary is common among monocotyledons, as in lily,
asphodel, onion, etc.
Dr. Sangekar Sarika
Yogeshwari Mahavidyalaya A.
2. (3) Central: In the central placentation the septa or
partition walls in the young ovary soon break down so that
the ovary becomes one-chambered and the placentae
bearing the ovules develop all round the central axis, as in
pink family, e.g. pink (Dianthus), Polycarpon, soap-wort
(Saponaria), etc. Remnants of partition walls may often be
seen in the mature ovary.
(4) Parietal: In the parietal placentation the ovary is one-
chambered, and the placentae bearing the ovules develop
on the inner wall of the ovary corresponding to the
confluent margins of carpels. There are as many placentae
as the number of carpels, as in papaw, poppy, prickly
poppy, orchids, etc. In mustard family, e.g., mustard, radish,
rape, etc., the placentation is also parietal but here the
ovary becomes two-chambered due to the development of
a false partition wall across the ovary from placenta to
placenta, and the seeds remain attached to a wiry
framework called the replum.
(3) Basal: In the basal placentation the ovary is unilocular
and the placenta develops directly on the thalamus, and
bears a single ovule at the base of the ovary. This is seen in
sunflower family, e.g. sunflower, marigold, Cosmos, etc.
(6) Superficial: In the superficial placentation the ovary is
multilocular
3. ,
Fruit.
Fruit is a developed and ripened ovary or ovaries together,
often, with adjacent floral organs and other plant parts.
Fruits range in complexity of their morphology from a
single carpel (e.g., legume) to a compound fruit (e.g.,
pineapple), where an entire inflorescence (including the
ovaries, floral parts, bracts, inflorescence axis, etc.)
converts into a single succulent mass. The fruit is the
product of the entire gynoecium and any floral parts
associated with the gynoecium in the fruiting stage.
Classification of Fruits
All the different kinds of fruits may be broadly classified
into three groups, viz.
simple,
aggregate and
multiple or composite.
common types are discussed under each group.
4. 1. Simple Fruits. When a single fruit develops from the
ovary (either of simple pistil or of syncarpous pistil) of
a flower with or without accessory parts, it is said to
be a simple fruit.
2. A simple fruit may be dry or fleshy. Dry fruits may
again be dehiscent or, indehiscent.
I. Dehiscent Or Capsular fruits:
(1) Legume or Pod: This is a dry, one-chambered fruit
developing from a simple pistil and dehiscing by both the
margins, e.g. pulses (pea, gram, lentil, etc.), bean, gold
mohur, Cassia, Mimosa, etc.
(2) Follicle: This is also a dry, one-chambered fruit like
the previous one, but it dehisces by one suture only.
Simple follicle is rare; it may sometimes be seen in madar
(Calotropis), blood flower (Asclepias), wax plant (Hoya),
Rauwolfia, etc. Usually follicles develop in an aggregate of
two, three, or many fruits.
5. 3) Siliqua: This is a dry, long, narrow, two-chambered fruit
developing from a bicarpellary pistil with two parietal
placentae. It dehisces from below upwards by both the
margins. The ovary is one-chambered at first, but soon it
becomes two-chambered owing to the development of a
false septum across a wiry framework, called replum, to
which the seeds remain attached, e.g. mustard, radish, etc.
A short, broad and flat siliqua, as in candytuft (Iberis), aiiscn
(Alyssum) and shepherd’s purse (Capsella), is otherwise
called a silicula.
(4) Capsule: This is a dry, one-to many-chambered fruit
developing from a syncarpous pistil, and dehiscing in
various ways. All dehiscent fruits developing from a
syncarpous pistil are commonly known as capsules, e.g.
cotton, lady’s finger, Datura, cock’s comb, poppy, etc.
6. II. Indehiscent Fruit
(1) Achene:An achene is a small, dry, one-seeded fruit
developing from a single carpel; but unlike the next one, the
pericarp of this fruit is free from the seed-coat, e.g. four
o’clock plant (Mirabilis), hogweed (Boerhaavid) and
buckwheat (Fagopyrum). Achenes, however, commonly
develop in an aggregate, as in rose, Clematis, Naraveha, etc.
(2) Caryopsis: This is a very small, dry, one-seeded fruit
developing from a simple (or syncarpous) pistil, with the
pericarp fused with the seed-coat, e.g. maize, rice, wheat,
bamboo, grass, etc.
(3) Cypsela: This is a dry, one-seeded fruit developing from
an inferior bicarpellary ovary, e.g. sunflower, marigold,
Cosmos, etc.
(4) Samara: This is a dry, indehiscent, one- or two-seeded,
winged fruit developing from a superior, bicarpellary or
tricarpellary ovary. In samara the wings, one or more,
always develop from the pericarp of the fruit, as in Hiptage
, ash (Fraxinus), yam, etc. Fruits of sal tree (Shorea), wood-
oil tree (Dipterocarpus), Hopea, etc., are also winged but in
them the wing are the dry, persistent sepals. A winged
fruit of this nature is called a samaroid.
(5) Nut :
This is a dry, one-seeded fruit developing from a superior
syncarpous pistil, with the pericarp hard and woody, e.g.
cashew-nut, marking nut, chestnut, oak, etc.
III. Splitting Or chizocarpic Fruit
(1) Lomentum: When the pod is constricted or partitioned
between the seeds into a number of one-seeded
7. compartments, it is called a lomentum, as in gum tree
(Acacia), nicker bean, sensitive plant (Mimosa), Indian
laburnum, (Cassia fistula), groundnut (Arachis), Indian
telegraph plant (Desmodium), etc.
(2) Cremocarp: This is a dry, two-chambered, inferior fruit
splitting into two indehiscent, one-seeded pieces, called
mericarps. Each mericarp remains attached to the forked
end of the axis (carpophore), as in coriander, anise or
fennel, cumin, carrot, etc.
(3) Double Samara : In maple (Acer), the fruit develops
from a superior, bicarpellary ovary, and when mature it
splits into two
(4) Regma: This is a dry, 3 to many chambered fruit
developing from a syncarpous pistil. It splits away from the
central axis into as many parts (cocci) as there are carpels,
each, part containing 1 or 2 seeds. Common examples are
castor, Euphorbia , Geranium, Jatropha etc.
Fleshy fruits:
8. (1) Drupe: This is a fleshy, one or more seeded fruit with
the pericarp differentiated into the outer skin or epicarp,
often fleshy or sometimes fibrous mesocarp, and hard and
stony endocarp, and hence this fruit is also known as stone-
fruit, e.g. mango, plum, coconut-palm, palmyra-palm,
country almond, etc.
(2) Bacca or Berry: This is a fleshy, superior (sometimes
inferior), usually many-seeded fruit, developing commonly
from a syncarpous pistil (rarelyfrom a single carpel) with
axile or parietal placentation, e.g. tomato, gooseberry,
grapes, banana, guava, papaw, etc. With the growth of the
fruit the seeds separate from the placentae and lie free in
the pulp. It is not infrequent to find a one-seeded berry, e.g.
date-palm. In Artabotrys berries develop in an aggregate.
(3) Pepo: This is also a fleshy, many-seeded fruit like the
berry but it develops from all inferior, one-celled or
spuriously three celled, syncarpous pistil with parietal
9. placentation, e.g. gourd, cucumber, melon, water melon,
squash, etc. In pepo, the seeds, lying embedded in the pulp,
remain attached to the placentae.
(4) Pome: This is an inferior, two or more celled, fleshy,
syncarpous fruit surrounded by the thalamus. The fleshy
edible part is composed of the thalamus, while the actual
fruit lies within, e.g. apple and pear.
(5) Hesperidium: This is a superior, many celled fleshy
fruit with axile placentation. Here the endocarp projects
inwards forming distinct chambers, and the epicarp and the
mesocarp, fused together, form the separable skin or rind
of the fruit, e.g. orange, pummelo or shaddock, lemon etc.
2. Aggregate Fruits:
An aggregate fruit is a collection of simple fruits (or
fruitlets) developing from an apocarpous pistil
(freecarpels) of a flower. Since each free carpel develops
into a fruit there will be as many fruits as there are free
carpels in a flower. An aggregate of simple fruits borne by a
single flower is otherwise known as an ‘etaerio’, and. the
common forms of etaerios are: (1)) an etaerio of follicles ,
e.g. Michelia, madar (Calotropis), periwinkles (Vinca),
larkspur (Delphinium) etc.; (2) an etaerio of achenes , e.g.
rose, lotus, Clematis, .strawberry, Naravelia, etc.; (3) an
etaerio of drupes , e.g. raspberry (Rubus); and (4) an etaerio
of berries , e.g. custard-apple (Annona), Artabotrys , mast
tree (Polyathia), etc.
3. Multiple or Composite Fruits: A multiple or composite
fruit is that which develops from an inflorescence where
the flowers are crowded together and often fused with one
another.
(1)Sorosis: This is a multiple fruit developing from a spike
or spadix. The flowers fuse together by their succulent
sepals and at the same time the axis bearing them grows
10. and becomes fleshy or woody, and as a result the whole
inflorescence forms a compact mass; e.g. pineapple (A),
screwpine, jack-fruit and mulberry .
(2) Syconus: The syconus develops from a hollow pear-
shaped, fleshy receptacle which encloses a number of
minute, male and female flowers. The receptacle grows,
becomes fleshy and forms the so-called fruit. It really
encloses a number of true fruits or achenes which develop
from the female flowers lying within the receptacle, as in
Ficus, (e.g. fig. banyan, peepul, etc.).
Q.3 : Explain in brief the Dispersal Strategies of seed
and fruit.
Ans : Flowering plants produce numerous seeds and fruits.
Some of the perennial plants produce seeds annually
during a specified period. If all the seeds and fruits
11. produced by a plant fall directly underneath its parent
plant, then the growing seeds and seedlings will cover all
the space and exhaust soil minerals and water. Under such
conditions, the seedlings cannot: grow into firm and well-
developed plants; and in due order a plant species may
grow well, the dispersal of their fruits are seeds is
absolutely essential, Seeds and fruits and provided with
vanous types of modifications which help them in
dispersal. In dehiscent fruits, dispersaltakes place after
their bursting while in indehiscent fruits, dispersal of their
fruits and seeds is absolutely essential. Seeds and fruits are
provided with various types of modifications which help
them in dispersal. In dehiscent fruits dispersal takes place
after their bursting while in indehiscent fruits, dispersal of
entire fruits is accomplished. The morphology of the
dispersing organ to a great extent is determined by the
environment.
1) Wind dispersal : Wind is the main medium for the
dispersal of a seeds and fruits. The following modifications
are noted in fruits and seeds which are dispersed through
wind.1) Seeds of orchids are very small, dry and dusty and
they are easily a way by wind.
2) Wings : Seeds and fruits develop wings which help in
dispersal.
a) Winged fruits : Fruits of Shorea, robusta have wings- the
modified calyx. In Hiptage, Acer, Dioscorea, Fraxinus (ash),
Terminalia myrocarpa, Hopea and Dipterocarpus, pericarp
is metamorphosed to wing-like structure.
b) Winged seeds : Seed coats of Bignonia. Cinchona,
Tacoma, Lagerstronia, Oroxylon, Stereospermim, Combritus
and Moringa are also minified to form wings.
Parachute mechanism :
12. Certain seeds and a few fruits have appendages which
accumulate air and become light to give buoyancy to the
seeds. The movement of such organs in the air is called
parachute mechanism.
a) Pappus : The fruits of Mikania, sunflower, dandelion
(Taraxacum officinal), Ageratum, Tridex and Sonchus of
family compositae are called as cypsella. Each fruit has
pappus i.e., hairy outgrowth or modified calyx in the form
of small hairs. The pappus is persistent in the fruit and
opens out in an umbrella-like fashion. When the fruit is
detached from the parent plant, the pappus acts like a
parachute and helps the fruit float in air and is carried away
to long distances. b) Coma : The seeds of Calotropis, bear
tuft of hairs known as coma. The coma acts like a parachute
and gives support to the seeds to float easily in air for
dispersal.
c) Hairy outgrowth : A group of hairs develop from the
inner-walls of the cotton seeds i.e., from the testa which
makes the seeds air-borne. Dispersal by water :
The plants which grow along the banks of rivers, sea-canals
and streams or directly in water disperse their fruits and
seeds by water currents. Such fruits and seeds are very light
and float on the surface of the water due to the presence of
spongy tissue containing air. The surface of these fruits is
usually smooth and ways or fibrous due to which fruits and
seeds are prevented from getting decayed. The fibrous fruit
of Coconut is carried to long distances on river or sea-coast
without causing any damage to the fruits. In coconut fruit,
the fibrous mesocarp accumulate air, becomes very light,
which helps in floating on water. The thalamus of
Nelumbiurn is conical and spongy and bears numerous
achenes embedded in it. A ripe fruit gets detached from the
mother, plant and falls on the surface of water and is carried
13. by water currents to long distances. Gradually, the spongy
thalamus decays and the seeds become free, which sink
down to water, settle in the mud and grow to form new
plants.
Dispersal by water: A-Lodoxia, B-Coconut, C-
Nilumbo
3) Dispersal by animals :
Many seeds and fruits are dispersed by animals, they
develop certain adaptivity to produce specific organs for
this purpose.
1) Organs for attachment : Various types of additional
organs are developed by plants of seeds for attachment to
animals.
a) Pointed organs : Many fruits are provided with curved
and pointedt hooks, barbs, spines, bristles, stiff hairs, etc.
On their body by mean of which they get attached to the
body surface or animals and clothes of human beings and
thus are carried away to long distance. The fruit of Urena,
Xanthiun (Cockle vur), Medicago and Martynia diandra
(tigera claw ) bear numerous curved hooks. Thi spikelets
of love thori (Chrysopogon) andi seeds of spea grass
(Aristida) have stiff hair pointing upwards. Pupalia fruit
14. are provided fruit, which enter the skin of animals and
clothes of humanL beings and are carried away from the
parent plant.
2} Sticky lands : In Plumbago and Boerhavia, the persistent
sepals, bear glandular hairs which easily stick to the body
of animals of clothes of human beings. Seeds watermelon,
muskmelon are also slightly adhesive) in nature. The fruits
of Cordia gharaf and Cordia obliqua grow in desert areas,
are very sticky in nature. Seeds of Aegle marmelos are also
sticky. Fruits of Achyranthes aspera are sticky due to their
scarious bracts and. perianths.
Hooked Fruits
Mechanical dispersal:
The dehiscence fruits by internal force is helpful in the
dispersal of seeds. This occurs due to the contraction of
moist walls on drying. The wall splits with a force and
seeds attached to it are thrown out. Such fruits are; called
as explosive. Many leguminous fruits like pea, bean and
gram burst L along both the sutures to disperse the seeds.
The ripe fruits of balsam, L when touched, burst
immediately. The valves roll-up inwards and the seeds 3
are-thrown out with are great force and scattered in
15. different direction. In Geranium, when the fruit ripes and
becomes dry, the styles curl-up carrying, the cocci at their
tips. The styles then open out with a jerk and the seeds;
are thrown away to some distance from the cocci. The
fruits of few plants t like Ruellia tuberosa,
Andrographispaniculata when burst, the two valves; eject
the seeds. The seeds have peculiar hook-like projection
called as ejaculatons or retinacula, developed from their
funicles, which become straight as soon as the fruit bursts
to eject the seeds.