The document discusses particle physics and compares it to concepts in Jainology. It summarizes current knowledge in particle physics including the three families of elementary particles - quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons. It outlines future areas of research in particle physics like determining particle masses and the nature of dark matter. The document then explains similar concepts in Jainology like paramanu being the most fundamental particle and that Jain concepts could enhance understanding of areas still unknown in particle physics like dark matter and provide insights into other scientific domains.

1. Particle Physics and Paramanu
Dr. C.Devakumar
cdevakumar@yahoo.com cdevakumar@gmail.com
Preamble
Introduction
Particle physics (PP)
Elementary Particles
Fundamental forces
Future Research
The standard model
Particle mass
Quarks and leptons
Dark matter
Search for a grand unified theory
Jaina Paramanu
Jainology and PP: Comparison
Bibliography
Glossary of Terms in Particle Physics
Related information on Anu and Skandha
Laws of Combinations
Abstract: Physical world for scientists is ‘be all and end all’ and to the seers it is only
to remind them the ultimate reality of Self-realisation and salvation. It will be unfair to
look in the scriptures for experimentally derived hard-evidences of the types expected of
a modern scientific research. In case of Jainism, a vast ocean of knowledge has been lost
irrecoverably. In spite of all, one comes across aphorisms of wisdom, which provide
valuable leads and clues. The much-talked biodiversity stems from karmic bondage. As
of now, three families of elementary particles viz. quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons are
known in particle physics. British physicists have identified the following areas for future
research in particle physics. First, what determines the masses of the elementary
particles? This is arguably the central question in particle physics today. Second, why are
there three generations of quarks and leptons? Why does matter dominate over antimatter
in the universe? The proposed experiments will probe for evidence possibly indicating
the existence of more fundamental particles The third crucial question concerns the
nature of the `dark matter´ forming more than 90% of the mass of the universe. This
material produces no radiation and can only be detected through its gravitational
attraction. Its existence almost certainly indicates physics beyond the Standard Model,
possibly the existence of new particles. Jainology has most of the clues on these vexing
issues. According to Jainology, paramanu is the most fundamental particle of matter. It is

2. also the basis of unit of time, space and number. There are 200 primary types of
paramanus and infinite secondary types. Even quarks appear to be composite in the light
of Jaina anus. The present gap of knowledge in particle physics can be easily addressed
through the lens of Jainology. A plausible explanation on dark matter is available in the
form of varganas. The Jaina concepts would further greatly enhance our understanding on
electromagnetic radiation, spectroscopy, the science of odour and flavour. The advent of
electrical charges and their role in bondage in Jainology are exemplary and they speak
volumes about the genius in creativity. The examples (such as milk, ghee, silicates etc)
used to explain the charged species are very apt and modern. There is a strong analogy
between photon and anu and once, this is established, it would be a great boost to
Jainology. There are striking resemblances in the nomenclature: Quarks have flavours;
anus have tastes; gluon has colours. It is concluded that science has a long way to travel
to catch up with Jaina concepts and can immensely benefit from Jainology.
Preamble: The cardinal principle of Jainism is to attain Self-realisation and
salvation. Due to unfortunate course of events in the history of Jainism after the last
Thirthankara, the twelve canons of scriptures were lost (according to Digambara
tradition) leaving behind a tiny portion as our heritage. The great seers were generous to
record the knowledge that was passed on to them and within the limitation of their
memory in the form of written records. The available scriptures are adequate in guiding
the aspirants of salvation. Even here, we see the glimpses of knowledge that would be
hidden in the twelve canons and their companion (Anga-baahya). These paradigms and
perspectives must be kept in mind while seeking solutions in Jain scriptures to the
mysteries confronting the scientific world. Another point to be borne in mind is that the
real knowledge is to be felt through one’s own spiritual experience. Physical world for
scientists is ‘be all and end all’ and to the seers it is only to remind them the ultimate
reality. Naturally, one will not find experimentally derived hard-evidences of the types
expected of a modern scientific research and approach. Instead, what one would come
across are plain statements or aphorisms of wisdom, which provide valuable leads and
clues.
Introduction
According to Jaina cosmology, the universe is constituted of six genera of
substances viz. souls, matter, space, time-atoms, medium of motion and medium of rest.
The souls are essentially two types: liberated and pure; bonded and impure. The latter is
otherwise is known as the mundane soul. The matter has association with the mundane
souls in the form of karmic bondage. The biodiversity stems from this bondage and the
resultant behaviour and growth thereof. In Jainism, the subject matter of interest is
primarily the mundane soul and the means by which he can free of the karmic bondage.
Matter exits in multiple ways and undergo transformations both by biotic and abiotic
mechanisms. A proper understanding of the Universe and its constituents is of paramount
importance and a pre-requisite in the path of Self-realisation. The extant scriptures
contain relevant information to this extent and purpose.

3. Particle Physics
Elementary Particles
There are three groups of elementary particles: quarks, leptons, and gauge bosons.
Quarks, of which there are 12 types (up, down, charm, strange, top,
and bottom, plus the antiparticles of each), combine in groups of three to produce
heavy particles called baryons, and in groups of two to produce intermediate-mass
particles called mesons. They and their composite particles are influenced by the
strong nuclear force.
Leptons are light particles. Again, there are 12 types: the electron,
muon, tau; their neutrinos, the electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino; and
the antiparticles of each. These particles are influenced by the weak nuclear force.
Gauge bosons carry forces between other particles. There are four
types: gluon, photon, weakon, and graviton. The gluon carries the strong nuclear
force, the photon the electromagnetic force, the weakons the weak nuclear force, and
the graviton the force of gravity.
Elementary Particles
Quarks♠
Symbol u d s c b t
Charge 2/3 -1/3 -1/3 2/3 -1/3 2/3 (?)
Mass( GeV/c2) 0.39 0.39 0.51 1.55 4.72 >170
Leptons♠

4. Quarks♠
Symbol e µ τ νe νµ ν
Charge -1 -1 -1 <10-8 <0.0006 <0.5
Mass ( GeV/c2) 0.0051 0.106 1.78 0 0 0
Fundamental forces
Four types of fundamental forces interacting between particles had been
identified.
• The electromagnetic force acts between all particles with electric charge, and
is related to the exchange between these particles of gauge bosons called
photons, packets of electromagnetic radiation.
• In 1973, the theory of quantum chromodynamics was postulated to account
for the strong nuclear force through the exchange of gauge bosons called
gluons between the quarks and antiquarks making up protons and neutrons.
• Theoretical work on the weak nuclear force began with Enrico Fermi in the
1930s. The existence of the gauge bosons that carry this force, the weakons
(W and Z particles), was confirmed in 1983 at CERN, the European nuclear
research organization.
• The fourth fundamental force, gravity, is experienced by all matter; the
postulated carrier of this force has been named the graviton.
Future Research
British physicists have proposed a strategy for future research in particle physics.
In a report, ` Particle Physics 2000´, the UK Science and Engineering Research Council
(SERC) set out the areas of the subject considered most promising for future research.
The standard model
The Standard Model describes the elementary particles and the forces acting on
them. The model supposes that matter comprises two distinct families of elementary
particles, quarks and leptons. Normal matter is built from two types of quark, u and d,
which form protons and neutrons. Two types of lepton, the electron and the electron
neutrino, are also found in the everyday world. This pattern of pairs of elementary
particles is repeated in two heavier `generations´ of particles, each with two quarks and
two leptons, which are revealed in accelerator experiments. However, although the
Standard Model is astonishingly successful, it cannot be the whole story. In its current
form, it contains many constants, such as the mass of particles, which are not predicted
but are measured in experiments and inserted into theory `by hand´. The SERC report
identifies three crucial unresolved problems.

5. Particle mass
First, what determines the masses of the elementary particles? This is
arguably the central question in particle physics today. Peter Higgs of Edinburgh
University has proposed that particles acquire mass through interactions with a new
particle, the Higgs boson, but there is no experimental evidence for this mechanism. To
investigate the origin of mass, SERC supports the proposed large hadron collider, a
particle accelerator planned for construction at CERN, the European particle physics
laboratory near Geneva, by 2008. The new machine would be powerful enough to reveal
the Higgs boson if it exists.
Quarks and leptons
Second, why are there three generations of quarks and leptons? The existence of
three generations is known to explain another of nature's puzzling features, CP violation
– the inherent lack of symmetry in the weak nuclear force. Understanding the
mechanism and size of this asymmetry is a subtle and challenging problem. It will
lead towards the explanation of another mystery - why does matter dominate over
antimatter in the universe? The problem will be tackled by experiments on the HERA
accelerator at DESY, the German national particle physics laboratory in Hamburg. The
machine will collide electrons with protons. It will work as a powerful electron
microscope, yielding a high-resolution picture of the protons and the quarks within them.
The experiments will probe for evidence of structure in quarks and leptons, which would
indicate that these particles are themselves built from more fundamental particles - a
possible explanation for the three generations.
Dark matter
The third crucial question concerns the nature of the `dark matter´ forming more
than 90% of the mass of the universe. This material produces no radiation and can
only be detected through its gravitational attraction. Its existence almost certainly
indicates physics beyond the Standard Model, possibly the existence of new
particles. Extremely sensitive detectors are needed to find it. To have escaped
detection so far, dark matter must have very little interaction with ordinary matter.
The search for a grand unified theory
Theorists have already shown that two of the four basic forces of nature –
electromagnetism and the weak force - are aspects of a single force, the electroweak
force. This suggests that the strong nuclear and electroweak forces can in turn be brought
together in a `grand unified theory´. There have been several attempts to include gravity
with the other forces in a consistent framework. The most exciting work is on string
theory which replaces point particles with the oscillations of one-dimensional `strings´.
As yet there is no hint of experimental support but the new accelerators might turn these

6. promising ideas into fact.
Jaina Paramanu
Paramanu or simply anu is the most fundamental particle of matter. It is also
called Pudgala meaning thereby an agent of fission and fusion. It is beyond sensory
perception. The sanskrit word, anu denotes that ‘it is inferred.’ It is eternal, occupies one
space point and it is of corporeal form. It has no mass and is spherical. It is also the basis
of unit of time, space and number. It is formed by the fission of composites and
aggregates called skandhas. In the lowest energy level of charges (snigdha or ruksha), it
exists in free form. It can also lead to the formation of lattices of several kinds called
varganas in free states. Some of these varganas are the templates or seeds of material
action, the physical world are known for.
There are 200 primary types of paramanus (fundamental particles) as seen from
the following Table 1. Each anu has distinct taste i.e, one out of five tastes, has distinct
colour i.e. one out of five colours, has a distinct smell i.e. one out of two smells, has a
distinct charge either positive or negative and has a distinct thermal touch i.e. either cold
or hot. Thus we have 5 x 5 x 2 x 2 x 2 combinations. The degree of the intensity of each
of these properties can vary from minimum to infinity in each anu. The degree of the
intensity of each of these properties can vary from minimum to infinity in each anu.
Thus, we have infinite secondary types of anus. The degree of these characteristics can be
subject to modifications during interactions but no character can be completely
annihilated. Anu just as any other substance has the intrinsic property of modifications.
Table 1. Fundamental quantum numbers of paramanus
Gunas Taste Colour Smell Electrical Thermal
(Quantum Charge Touch
Numbers?)
Bitter Blue Good Snigdha sita
(positive)
Sour Yellow Bad Ruksha usna
(negative)
acidic White
Sweet Black
Astringent Red
Jainology and Particle Physics: Comparison
1. Among the fundamental particles, neutrinos, anti-neutrino and gauge bosons
alone seem to come closer to Jaina anus, though not really.

7. 2. According to Jaina view, there are at least 200 fundamental particles. There is
room for modern research to follow this excellent lead.
3. The five gunas (colour, taste, flavour, charge and thermal property) can be
translated as quantum numbers analogous to modern quantum chemistry.
4. There are five fundamental colours as an intrinsic property of anus. In science,
there are only three primary colours viz. red, blue and green from which
secondary colours can be synthesized. The present understanding of spectroscopy
dealing with colour is one of electromagnetic spectrum having definite colour
bands and the associated thermal properties. The red and infrared region refers to
hot zone while the ultraviolet region may be the converse of it. The Jaina view is
rather very distinct as far as these two properties are concerned. Here again, there
is food for thought for spectroscopists.
5. The science of odour and taste is not that advanced and these two properties get
varied responses from different organisms. From the Jaina point of view, it is
clear that man should be the target test organism so that good and bad smells as
well as taste stimuli make sense with respect to human world.
6. The snigdha (+ ve) and ruksha (-ve) charges are responsible for fusion and
fission. In modern physics, gluons are assigned this role. However, there is close
analogy with chemical bonding involving electrons.
7. The examples (such as milk, ghee, silicates etc) used to explain the charged
species are very apt and modern.
8. Since anus are beyond sense-perception, it does mean that they can not be
detected by any instrument due to lack of sensitivity of this order. In other words,
their presence can only be deduced through the study of composite particles called
skandha pradeshas. Even quarks appear to be composite in the light of Jaina anus.
9. The mystery of dark matter is best revealed by the arrays of anu varganas and
skandha varganas including vast valleys of voids in between. Some of these
varganas and voids may not emit any radiation in the detectable range.
10. Energy is also matter. This view is common to both the systems. According to
Jainism, sound is a paryaya or a modification–effect of interaction of skandhas.
Sound belongs to the family of skandha. Is photon an anu or a cluster of anus?
This needs to be properly understood. In other words, what constitutes
electromagnetic radiation? Since, there can be nothing smaller than anu, the
energy packets must be made of anus only.
11. There are striking resemblances in the nomenclature: Quarks have flavours; anus
have tastes; gluon has colours. Great men think alike!
12. Going through the Jaina view of paramanu, one thing is abundantly clear; i.e.
science has a long way to travel to catch up with these Jaina concepts. Science is

8. not in a position of superiority in terms of understanding of matter to ignore Jaina
views as of now.
Bibliography
Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa, by Kshu. Jinendra Varni, Bharatiya Jnanpith Prakasan, New
Delhi, V Edition (1997)
Part III ‘Pudgal’, pp. 67-68; ‘Paramanu’, pp. 13-18; ‘ Vargana’ pp. 411-419.
Part IV ‘ Skandha’, pp. 445-447.
Jain Lakshanavali edited by Balchandra Siddhantashastri, Vir Sewa Mandir, 21,
Daryaganj, Delhi (1973)
Vol. 2: ‘Paramanu’, pp. 665-666; Vol. 2: ‘Pudgal’, pp. 712-714.
Vol. 3: ‘Vargana’, pp. 983; Vol. 3: ‘Skandha’, pp. 1177.
Anu, and Skandha through the Lens of Jainology and Modern Science (Tamil) by C.
Devakumar, pp. 69-79. In “Jainism and Science (Tamil)” published by
Srutakevali BhadraBahu Swami Seva Dal, Kund Kund Nagar-604 505 (2001).

9. Glossary of Terms in Particle Physics

10. Antiparticle: In nuclear physics, a particle corresponding in mass and properties to a
given elementary particle but with the opposite electrical charge, magnetic properties, or
coupling to other fundamental forces. For example, an electron carries a negative charge
whereas its antiparticle, the positron, carries a positive one. When a particle and its
antiparticle collide, they destroy each other, in the process called ` annihilation´, their
total energy being converted to lighter particles and/or photons. A substance consisting
entirely of antiparticles is known as antimatter. Other antiparticles include the negatively
charged antiproton and the antineutron.
Baryon : A heavy subatomic particle made up of three indivisible elementary particles
called quarks. The baryons form a subclass of the hadrons and comprise the nucleons
(protons and neutrons) and hyperons. (See also Mesons and Baryons )
Brown Dwarf : In astronomy, an object less massive than a star, but heavier than a
planet. Brown dwarfs do not have enough mass to ignite nuclear reactions at their centres,
but shine by heat released during their contraction from a gas cloud. Some astronomers
believe that vast numbers of brown dwarfs exist throughout the Galaxy. Because of the
difficulty of detection, none were spotted until 1995, when US astronomers discovered a
brown dwarf, GI229B, in the constellation Lepus. It is about 20-40 times as massive as
Jupiter but emits only 1% of the radiation of the smallest known star. In 1996 UK
astronomers discovered four possible brown dwarfs within 150 light years of the Sun.
Dark Matter : Matter that, according to current theories of cosmology, makes up
90-99% of the mass of the universe but so far remains undetected. Dark matter, if shown
to exist, would explain many currently unexplained gravitational effects in the movement
of galaxies. Theories of the composition of dark matter include unknown atomic particles
(cold dark matter) or fast-moving neutrinos (hot dark matter) or a combination of both. In
1993 astronomers identified part of the dark matter in the form of stray planets and brown
dwarfs, and possibly, stars that have failed to light up. These objects are known as
MACHOs (massive astrophysical compact halo objects) and, according to US
astronomers 1996, make up approximately half of the dark matter in the Milky Way's
halo.
Gauge bosons or field particles : Any of the particles that carry the four fundamental
forces of nature. Gauge bosons are elementary particles that cannot be subdivided, and
include the photon, the graviton, the gluons, and the weakons.
Gluon: A gauge boson that carries the strong nuclear force, responsible for binding
quarks together to form the strongly interacting subatomic particles known as hadrons.
There are eight kinds of gluon. Gluons cannot exist in isolation; they are believed to exist
in balls (`glueballs´) that behave as single particles. Glueballs may have been detected at
CERN in 1995 but further research is required to confirm their existence.
Grand Unified Theory: A sought-for theory that would combine the theory of the strong
nuclear force (called quantum chromodynamics) with the theory of the weak nuclear and
electromagnetic forces. The search for the grand unified theory is part of a larger
programme seeking a unified field theory, which would combine all the forces of nature
(including gravity) within one framework.

11. Hadron: A subatomic particle that experiences the strong nuclear force. Each is made
up of two or three indivisible particles called quarks. The hadrons are grouped into the
baryons (protons, neutrons, and hyperons) and the mesons (particles with masses between
those of electrons and protons). (See also Mesons and Baryons)
Leptons: The electron, muon, tau, and their neutrinos comprise the leptons - light
particles with half- integral spin that `feel´ the weak nuclear and electromagnetic force
but not the strong force. The muon (found by US physicist Carl Anderson in cosmic
radiation in 1937) produces the muon neutrino when it decays; the tau, a surprise
discovery of the 1970s, produces the tau neutrino when it decays.
Leptoquark : A hypothetical particle made up of a quark combined with a lepton, or a
new particle created by their interaction.
MACHO (massive astrophysical compact halo object): Component of the Galaxy's
dark matter. Most MACHOs are believed to be brown dwarfs, tiny failed stars with a
mass of about 8% that of the Sun, but they may also include neutron stars left behind
after supernova explosions. MACHOs are identifiable when they move in front of stars
causing microlensing (magnification) of the star's light. Astronomers first identified
MACHOs in 1993 and estimate that they account for 20% of the dark matter.
Meson: A group of unstable subatomic particles made up of two indivisible elementary
particles called quarks. It has a mass intermediate between that of the electron and that of
the proton, is found in cosmic radiation, and is emitted by nuclei under bombardment by
very high-energy particles. The mesons form a subclass of the hadrons and include the
kaons and pions. Their existence was predicted in 1935 by Japanese physicist Hideki
Yukawa. (See also Mesons and Baryons )
Mesons and Baryons: The hadrons (particles that `feel´ the strong nuclear force) were
found in the 1950s and 1960s. They are classified into mesons, with whole number or
zero spins, and baryons (which include protons and neutrons), with half-integral spins. It
was shown in the early 1960s that if hadrons of the same spin are represented as points on
suitable charts, simple patterns are formed. This symmetry enabled a hitherto unknown
baryon, the omega-minus, to be predicted from a gap in one of the patterns; it duly turned
up in experiments.
Quarks: In 1964, US physicists Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig suggested that all
hadrons were built from three `flavours´ of a new particle with half-integral spin and a
charge of magnitude either 1/3 or 2/3 that of an electron; Gell-Mann named the particle
the quark. Mesons are quark -antiquark pairs (spins either add to one or cancel to zero),
and baryons are quark triplets. To account for new mesons such as the psi (J) particle the
number of quark flavours had risen to six by 1985.

12. Superstring Theory: A mathematical theory developed in the 1980s to explain the
properties of elementary particles and the forces between them (in particular, gravity and
the nuclear forces) in a way that combines relativity and quantum theory. In string theory,
the fundamental objects in the universe are not pointlike particles but extremely small
stringlike objects. These objects exist in a universe of ten dimensions, although, for
reasons not yet understood, only three space dimensions and one dimension of time are
discernible. There are many unresolved difficulties with superstring theory, but some
physicists think it may be the ultimate `theory of everything´ that explains all aspects of
the universe within one framework.
Unified Field Theory: The theory that attempts to explain the four fundamental forces
(strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electromagnetic, and gravity) in terms of a single unified
force. Research was begun by Albert Einstein, and by 1971 a theory developed by US
physicists Steven Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow, Pakistani physicist Abdus Salam, and
others, had demonstrated the link between the weak and electromagnetic forces. The next
stage is to develop a theory (called the grand unified theory) that combines the strong
nuclear force with the electroweak force. The final stage will be to incorporate gravity
into the scheme. Work on the superstring theory indicates that this may be the ultimate
`theory of everything´.
Weak nuclear force or weak interaction: One of the four fundamental forces of nature,
it causes radioactive beta decay and other subatomic reactions. The particles that carry
the weak force are called weakons.
Weakons or intermediate vector bosons: A gauge boson that carries the weak nuclear
force. There are three types of weakons, the positive and negative W particle and the
neutral Z particle.
WIMP (weak interacting massive particle): Hypothetical subatomic particle found in
the Galaxy’s dark matter. These particles could constitute the 80% of dark matter
unaccounted for by MACHOs (massive astrophysical compact halo objects). The wimps
fill up space and hold the galaxies together (Hindustan Times, 16.9.99)

13. Related information on Anu and Skandha
Skandhas
An aggregate of anus is called a skandha. Skandhas can be classified into skandha,
skandhadesa and skandhapradesa depending on the number of anus constituted there of.
They can also be divided into two types viz., those that can be perceived by the senses
and those that can not. They can exist in six different physical states:
1. solids,
2. liquids,
3. shadows or images,
4. gases/vapours, badara suksma; minute perceptible to senses
5. ions/plasmas(?), suksma minute imperceptible to senses as karmic matter
6. composite particles. Suksma suksma, ultramicroscopic; composed of matter ranging
from a doublet of particles to karmic matter. (Notes from Panchastikaya)
JAIN LAWS OF COMBINATIONS
1.Skandhas are formed by the processes of fusion, fission and both.
(Chemical analogy: A molecule can be synthesized from its elements. A molecule
can decompose to give rise to smaller fragments. A molecule can also be formed
by condensation through which a new molecule is formed by the combination of
two molecules with concurrent elimination of a smaller fragment).
Fusion of two anus can give rise to a molecule of two space points. Such a
dianuic molecule can further combine with a third anu to give a new molecule of
three space-points and so on. (For instance, formation of O2 and O3. The latter can
also be formed directly from its elements for example CO and CO 2.) Thus, the
molecular formation i.e., fusion can be ad infinitum in which N anus can fuse to a
molecule of N space points. Alternatively, fusion can be concurrent with
conservation of space thereby leading to the formation of denser materials.
Fission can reverse the process in the same ways.
2. Visible objects are formed both by fission and fusion of infinite anus.
Notes: Similarly, objects invisible to eyes can be formed by both mechanisms.
Infinite particles can fuse to give rise to a skandha invisible to eye. An invisible
skandha can be made visible only by the twin processes of fission followed by
fusion. Fission alone does not render it visible. The fragment combines with
another forming a visible skandha.
3. Anus are formed by fission only.
4. A skandha constituting infinite anus can just occupy a space point.
5. Snigdha and ruksha are the driving forces of bond formation.
6. Anus having the least quantum of charge do not undergo fusion.

14. 7. Anus having equivalent charges (irrespective of sign) do not take part in
fusion processes.
8. Such anus form arrays of anu-pairs (varganas) of definite distance as a single
row or in a matrix form containing numerable/ innumerable or infinite anus
in all directions of space- time.
9. Fusion of particles differing in charges by two units is allowed between same
as well as opposite signs.
10. The skandha with higher charge transforms the inferior partner leading to a
compound.
11. Mutations and modifications in four characteristics in case of anus and in all
characteristics in case of skandhas always take place with the conservation of
fundamental characteristics of anus.