1) Paraplegia is defined as impairment of motor function in the lower extremities, which can be caused by lesions in the cerebral cortex, spinal cord, nerves supplying the lower limbs, or muscles directly.
2) Complete paralysis of both lower limbs is known as paraplegia, while partial paralysis is called paraparesis. Lesions that transect motor tracts cause spastic paraplegia or quadriplegia with heightened reflexes.
3) Determining the level and type of spinal cord lesion is important for diagnosis and involves assessing sensory loss, motor weakness, reflex changes, and associated symptoms.
Refers to cardiac muscle that is alive, not dead presence of cellular, metabolic, and microscopic contractile function Clinically LV systolic dysfunction in ischemic heart disease does not always represent irreversible damage and dysfunctional but viable myocardium has the potential to improve its systolic function after revascularization Two basic mechanisms of reversible ischemic dysfunction myocardial stunning myocardial hibernation
HOT NEW PRODUCT! BIG SALES FAST SHIPPING NOW FROM CHINA!! EU KU DB BK substit...GL Anaacs
Contact us if you are interested:
Email / Skype : kefaya1771@gmail.com
Threema: PXHY5PDH
New BATCH Ku !!! MUCH IN DEMAND FAST SALE EVERY BATCH HAPPY GOOD EFFECT BIG BATCH !
Contact me on Threema or skype to start big business!!
Hot-sale products:
NEW HOT EUTYLONE WHITE CRYSTAL!!
5cl-adba precursor (semi finished )
5cl-adba raw materials
ADBB precursor (semi finished )
ADBB raw materials
APVP powder
5fadb/4f-adb
Jwh018 / Jwh210
Eutylone crystal
Protonitazene (hydrochloride) CAS: 119276-01-6
Flubrotizolam CAS: 57801-95-3
Metonitazene CAS: 14680-51-4
Payment terms: Western Union,MoneyGram,Bitcoin or USDT.
Deliver Time: Usually 7-15days
Shipping method: FedEx, TNT, DHL,UPS etc.Our deliveries are 100% safe, fast, reliable and discreet.
Samples will be sent for your evaluation!If you are interested in, please contact me, let's talk details.
We specializes in exporting high quality Research chemical, medical intermediate, Pharmaceutical chemicals and so on. Products are exported to USA, Canada, France, Korea, Japan,Russia, Southeast Asia and other countries.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. Paraplegia
Definition : Impairment in motor function of lower
extremities with or without involvement of sensory
system.
Usually caused by involvement of :
cerebral cortex
spinal cord
nerves supplying muscles of of lower limbs
or due to involvement of muscles directly
3. Complete paralysis of both lower limbs is known as
paraplegia whereas partial paralysis is known as
paraparesis.
Both upper limbs +Both lower limbs
Quadriplegia
Only one limb (usually upper limb)
Monoplegia
Paralysis of symmetrical parts on both sides of the body,
typically affecting the legs more severely than the arms
Diplegia
5. Features Paraplegia in extension Paraplegia in flexion
Mode of transection Incomplete transection
(only corticospinal tract
involved )
Complete transection
(affects both corticospinal and
extrapyramidal tracts)
Evolution Early Late
Hypertonia more in extensors more in flexors
Position of Lower limbs Extended Flexed
Deep Reflexes Exaggerated Less exaggerated
Clonus Present Absent
Flexor withdrawal reflex Not present Present
Mass reflex Not present Present
Any stimulus below the level of
lesion produces :
a. Flexor spasm
b. Emptying of the bladder and
bowel
c. Seminal emission
6. Causes of Paraplegia
Due to upper motor neuron lesion (spastic paralysis)
Intracranial/Cerebral
Spinal (myelopathy)
Non compressive
Compressive
Due to lower motor neuron lesion (flaccid paralysis)
Anterior horn cells
Roots
Peripheral nerves
Myo-neuronal junction
Muscles
Functional or hysterical
7. CEREBRAL CAUSES :
A. Causes in parsagittal Region
1. Traumatic :
• depressed fracture of vault of skull, subdural hematoma
2. Vascular : Superior sagittal sinus thrombosis
3. Inflammatory : Encephalitis, meningocephalitis
4. Neoplasm : Parasagital meningioma
5. Degenerative : Cerebral palsy
B. Causes in Brain Stem
• Syringobulbia and midline tumors
16. APPROACH TO PATIENT WITH PARAPLEGIA
History : Ask about
1. Onset : Sudden
Trauma ( fracture/dislocation of vertebra )
Infection : epidural abscess,
Vascular : thrombosis of ASA, Endarteritis,
Transverse myelitis )
2. Duration of symptom :
Short : Traumatic ,Infective causes
Long : Neoplastic , Heriditary, Congenital, Demyelinating causes
3. Sensory area involve :
Sacral sparing or sacral area involved
Radicular (Root) pain : indicates extradural lession
4. Progression :
Symmetrical or serial
Proximal or distal muscles
Weakness is progressive or static
17. 5. Associated symptoms :
Fever : Infective causes
Seizures
Delayed milestone: cerebral cause
Various symptoms associated with vitamin deficeincy etc
6. Bladder and Bowel involvement
7. Specific history regarding:
preceding illness, Trauma, prior vaccination , involuntary
movements
8. In Children :
antenatal, natal and post-natal history (maternal infection, birth
asphyxia, Hyperbilirubinemia, hospitalization etc)
9. Significant past and family history
18. Examination
Complete systemic examination including neurological
examination is must
It includes Higher mental function status ( affected in
cerebral and degenerative disease)
Cranial nerve examination ( affected in Brain stem lesion)
Tone (increased in UMN and decreased in LMN lesion)
DTR ( exaggerated in UMN and absent in LMN lesions and
spinal shock )
19. Sensory examination : to assess particular sensory level
and to what extent and which sensation is lost
Proper examination of skull and spine : to look for any
localized tenderness , depressed fracture , deformity
etc.
20. Determining the Level of the Lesion
Presence of horizontally defined level below which sensory,
motor, and autonomic function is impaired is a hallmark of a
lesion of the spinal cord.
The sensory level is sought by asking the patient to identify a
pinprick or cold stimulus applied to the proximal legs and lower
trunk and successively moved up toward neck on each side.
21.
22. Sensory loss below this level is due to damage to the
spinothalamic tract on opposite side, one to two segments higher
in the case of a unilateral spinal cord lesion, and at the level of
bilateral lesion.
Discrepancy in the level of a unilateral lesion is the result of the
course of the second-order sensory fibers, which originate in the
dorsal horn, and ascend for one or two levels as they cross anterior
to the central canal to join the opposite spinothalamic tract.
23. Lesions that transect descending corticospinal and other motor
tracts
cause paraplegia or quadriplegia
heightened deep tendon reflexes, Babinski signs, and eventual
spasticity (the upper motor neuron syndrome).
Transverse damage to cord also produces autonomic disturbances
consisting of absent sweating below implicated cord level and
bladder, bowel, and sexual dysfunction.
24. Uppermost level of spinal cord lesion can also be localized by
attention to the segmental signs corresponding to disturbed motor
or sensory innervation by an individual cord segment.
A band of altered sensation (hyperalgesia or hyperpathia) at the
upper end of the sensory disturbance,
fasciculations or atrophy in muscles innervated by one or several
segments, or
a muted or absent deep tendon reflex may be noted at this level.
These signs also can occur with focal root or peripheral nerve
disorders; thus, they are most useful when they occur together
with signs of long tract damage
25. With severe and acute transverse lesions, limbs initially may be
flaccid rather than spastic.
This state of “spinal shock” lasts for several days, rarely for
weeks, and may be mistaken for extensive damage to the anterior
horn cells over many segments of the cord or for an acute
polyneuropathy.
26. Order of compression of the tracts
• 1st Pyramidal tract,
• 2nd Posterior column,
• lastly Spinothalamic tract
26
27. Reasons:
Pyramidal tract is supplied by terminal branches of spinal
arteries and hence most susceptible to compressive ischemia.
Pyramidal tract lying closest to denticulate ligament
subject to traction in spinal cord compression.
28.
29. Features of transverse damage at each level
Cervical Cord
• quadriplegia and weakness of the diaphragm.
• C4-C5 produce quadriplegia;
• C5-C6: loss of power and reflexes in the biceps;
• C7 weakness affects finger and wrist extensors and triceps;
• C8, finger and wrist flexion impaired
• Horner's syndrome- any level
• Cervical spondylosis never involves C8
• so small muscle wasting rules out cervical spondylosis
30. Thoracic cord
• Nipples (T4) and Umbilicus (T10).
• Leg weakness and disturbances of bladder and bowel
function
• Lesions at T9-T10 paralyze the lower abdominal muscles,
resulting in upward movement of the umbilicus when the
abdominal wall contracts (Beevor's sign)
32. Lumbar and sacral cord
L2-L4:
Paralyze flexion and adduction of thigh
Weakens leg extension at knee
Loss of patellar reflex
L5-S1:
Paralyze movements of foot and ankle
Weakens Flexion at knee
Weakens extension of thigh
Loss of ankle reflex
33. Sacral cord / conus medullaris
Tapered termination of spinal cord is conus medullaris and
comprises of sacral and single coccygeal segments
Syndrome
Prominent bladder and bowel dysfunction (urinary retention
and incontinence with lax anal tone) and
Impotence
Bulbocavernous (S2-S4) and anal reflexes (S4-S5) are
absent
Muscle strength preserved
Sensory abnormality precede motor and reflex changes by
many months
34. Cauda equina lesion
Low back and radicular pain
Asymmetric leg weakness and sensory loss
Variable areflexia in lower extremities and relative
sparing of bowel and bladder function
35. Conus medullaris Cauda equina syndrome
Onset Sudden and bilateral Gradual and unilateral
Aetiology Intramedullary SOL;
glioma
PID, metastases
Root pain Usually absent Severe low back
Motor involvement Not marked Asymmetric limb
weakness
Sensory loss Bilateral saddle
anesthesia
Asymmetric sensory loss
Bladder and bowel
function
Early and marked Late and less marked
Deep reflexes Knee jerk normal, ankle
jerk lost
Ankle and knee jerks
absent
Trophic changes Prominent Less
Planter response Extensor Flexor or no response
36. Special Patterns of Spinal Cord Disease
36
Brown-Sequard Hemicord
Syndrome
Segmental signs, such as
radicular pain, muscle atrophy,
or loss of a deep tendon reflex,
are unilateral.
Partial forms are more common
than the fully developed
syndrome.
37. Central Cord Syndrome
arm weakness out of proportion
to leg weakness
“dissociated” sensory loss
loss of pain and temperature
sensations over the shoulders, lower
neck, and upper trunk (cape
distribution), in contrast to
preservation of light touch, joint
position, and vibration sense in
these regions
Selective damage to gray matter nerve
cells and crossing spinothalamic tracts
surrounding central canal
38. Foramen magnum syndrome
Lesions interrupt decussating pyramidal tract fibers for
legs
Classically produces “around the clock” progression of
weakness
Elsberg’s phenomenon
Sub-occipital pain spreading to neck and shoulders
Marked imbalance
Cerebellar and cranial nerve involvement if they spread
intracranially
40. Intramedullary and Extramedullary Syndromes
Intramedullary processes: Arising within the substance of
the cord
Extramedullary : that lie outside the cord and compress
the spinal cord or its vascular supply.
The differentiating features are only relative and serve as
clinical guides.
41.
42. Extramedullary lesions:
Radicular pain is often prominent
early sacral sensory loss and spastic weakness in the legs with
incontinence
due to the superficial location of the corresponding sensory and
motor fibers in the spinothalamic and corticospinal tracts.
Intramedullary lesions:
Produce poorly localized burning pain rather than radicular pain
spare sensation in the perineal and sacral areas (“sacral sparing”),
reflecting the laminated configuration of the spinothalamic tract
with sacral fibers outermost;
corticospinal tract signs appear later.
43. Regarding extra-medullary lesions
Extradural lesions are generally malignant and intradural benign
(neurofibroma being a common cause)
Consequently, a long duration of symptoms favors an intradural
origin.
48. Intradural Extradural (3P)
Dissociative anesthesia
Bladder involvement
early
Not so high
Symmetrical involvement
Trophic ulcers common
Pain present
Root pain and spinal
tenderness
Pyramidal involvement
early
Protein in CSF high
Froins syndrome
Assymetrical
49. Points, which help in determining level of lesion in
spinal cord compression:
1. Sensory level
2.Motor level
3. Reflex level
4. Root pain-shows dermatome involved.
5. Type of bladder involvement.
6. Autonomic disturbances.
50. Noncompressive acute transverse myelopathy
(ATM)
Spinal cord infarction
Systemic inflammatory disorders, including SLE and sarcoidosis
Demyelinating diseases, including multiple sclerosis (MS)
Neuromyelitis optica (NMO)
Postinfectious or idiopathic transverse myelitis
51. Transverse myelitis
It is of acute onset with total transection of cord. At times
it may evolve over a period of several days to weeks
Although non-compressive, behaves like compressive
Post-infectious occur in recovery phase of disease
Post-vaccinal
Mid-thoracic region is most common site
Fever may present before paralysis develops
Early bladder involvement
Band like sensation
52. • Level of hyperaesthesia
• Spinal shock stage- acute Flaccid paralysis
• Loss of sensory ,autonomic feature below the lesion
• UMN feature develop later
• 70% recover within 12 wks ( 3 month )
• Other causes
• Multiple sclerosis
• HIV
• Sarcoidosis
• ACA occlusion (unpaired)
• Syphilis
• Radiation myelopathy
Transverse myelitis contd..
54. Acute infarction of the anterior spinal artery produces
paraplegia or quadriplegia,
dissociated sensory loss affecting pain and temperature sense but
sparing vibration and position sense, and
loss of sphincter control ("anterior cord syndrome”).
55. Posterior spinal arteries ischaemia (loss of posterior
column function)
Loss of tendon reflexes/motor weakness
Loss of joint position sense.
57. Multiple Sclerosis
MS may present with acute myelitis
MRI
Mild swelling of the cord and diffuse or multifocal “shoddy” areas of abnormal signal on
T2-weighted sequences.
Contrast enhancement, indicating disruption in the blood-brain barrier associated with
inflammation, is present in many acute cases
CSF
may be normal, but more often mild mononuclear cell pleocytosis, with normal or mildly
elevated CSF protein levels;
oligoclonal bands.
IV methylprednisolone (500 mg qd for 3 days) followed by oral prednisone.
Plasma exchange : severe case if glucocorticoids are ineffective
58. Neuromyelitis Optica
Immune-mediated demyelinating disorder consisting
of a severe myelopathy
typically longitudinally extend-three or more
vertebral segments.
Associated with optic neuritis
often bilateral
may precede or follow myelitis by weeks or months
59. CSF
variable mononuclear pleocytosis;
unlike MS, oligoclonal bands are generally absent.
Diagnostic serum auto-antibodies against the water channel
protein aquaporin-4
present in 60–70% of patients with NMO.
Associated with SLE and antiphospholipid antibodies
Rx: Glucocorticoids and, for refractory cases, plasma exchange
Neuromyelitis Optica contd..
61. Sarcoid Myelopathy
Slowly progressive or relapsing disorder
Typical CSF profile
variable lymphocytic pleocytosis and mildly elevated protein level;
in a minority of cases reduced glucose and oligoclonal bands are
found
Initial treatment is with oral glucocorticoids; immunosuppressant
drugs are used for resistant cases.
62. Post-infectious / post-vaccinal Myelitis
Postinfectious or postvaccinal, follow an infection or vaccination
1. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
2. Mycoplasma
3. Influenza
4. Measles, Mumps, Varicella
An autoimmune disorder triggered by infection and is not due to direct
infection of the spinal cord
Rx: Glucocorticoids or, in fulminant cases, plasma exchange
64. Acute Infectious Myelitis
Herpes zoster is the best characterized cause of viral
myelitis
HSV types 1 and type 2 ,EBV, CMV, and Rabies virus
are other well-described causes
HSV-2 (and less commonly HSV-1)
Causes a distinctive syndrome of recurrent sacral cauda
equina neuritis in association with outbreaks of genital
herpes (Elsberg’s syndrome).
65. Bacterial and mycobacterial myelitis (most are essentially
abscesses)
are less common than viral causes, and
much less frequent than cerebral bacterial abscess.
1. Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease),
2. Listeria monocytogenes,
3. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and
4. Treponema pallidum (syphilis)
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
may be a cause of myelitis, but its status is uncertain because
many cases are more properly classified as post-infectious.
66. Schistosomiasis is an important cause of parasitic myelitis in
endemic areas
The process is intensely inflammatory and granulomatous,
caused by a local response to tissue-digesting enzymes from the
ova of the parasite, typically Schistosoma mansoni.
Toxoplasmosis can occasionally cause a focal myelopathy,
and this diagnosis should especially be considered in patients
with AIDS
67. In cases of suspected viral myelitis it may be appropriate to
begin specific therapy pending laboratory confirmation.
Herpes zoster, HSV, and EBV myelitis :
I.V Acyclovir (10 mg/kg q8h) or
Oral valacyclovir (2 g tid) for 10–14 days
• CMV :
• Ganciclovir (5 mg/kg IV bid) plus Foscarnet (60 mg/kg IV tid)
or cidofovir (5 mg/kg per week for 2 weeks).
69. Spondylitic Myelopathy
One of the most common causes of chronic cord
compression and of gait difficulty in the elderly
Neck and shoulder pain with stiffness, tingling and
numbness initially progressed to radicular arm pain and
weakness as well as atrophy of muscles
70. Dural arterio-venous (AV) fistulas
typical presentation is a middle-aged man with a progressive
myelopathy that worsens slowly or intermittently and may have
periods of remission, resembling MS
Incomplete sensory, motor, and bladder disturbances
Dx: Spinal angiography
Rx: Endovascular embolization
Vascular Malformations of the Cord and Dura
71. Formerly called Tropical spastic paraparesis
Insidious onset, slowly progressive spastic syndrome.
Approximately half of patients have mild back or leg pain.
Vacuolar degeneration of the posterior and lateral tracts, resembling
SCD.
Dx: ELISA, Western blot analysis
Rx: No effective treatment, but symptomatic therapy
Retrovirus-Associated Myelopathy
72. Developmental cavity of the cervical cord that is prone to
enlarge and produce progressive myelopathy
Insidious onset in adolescence or early adulthood, progress
irregularly, and may undergo spontaneous arrest for several
years
Associated with Chiari type 1 malformations
Acquired:
trauma, myelitis, necrotic spinal cord tumors, and chronic
arachnoiditis due to tuberculosis
Syringomyelia
73. Dissociated sensory loss
Sensory deficit-cape distribution.
Begin asymmetrically with unilateral
sensory loss in the hands.
Muscle wasting in the lower neck,
shoulders, arms, and hands with
asymmetric or absent reflexes in the arms.
Spasticity and weakness of the legs,
bladder and bowel dysfunction, and a
Horner's syndrome appear
Syringomyelia
74. Hypo-cupric Myelopathy
Virtually identical to sub-acute combined degeneration
Low levels of serum copper
Low level of serum ceruloplasmin
High level of zinc
75. Sub-acute Combined Degeneration
Treatable
Predominant involvement of the posterior and pyramidal tracts,
symmetrical
Loss of ankle reflex and Babinski signs important diagnostic
clue.
Optic atrophy and irritability or other mental changes
Macrocytic red blood cells,
Low serum B12 concentration, and
Elevated serum levels of homocysteine and methylmalonic acid
76. Tabes Dorsalis
Loss of reflexes in the legs;
Impaired position and vibratory sense;
Romberg's sign is present; and,
In almost all cases, Bilateral Argyll Robertson pupils
77. Familial Spastic Paraplegia
Genetic
Progressive spasticity and weakness in the legs,
usually but not always, symmetric.
Pure motor type
no sensory symptoms
But sphincter disturbances may be present
Diplegia, when used singularly, refers to paralysis affecting symmetrical parts of the body. This should not be confused with hemiplegia which refers to spasticity restricted to one side of the body, or quadriplegia which requires the involvement of all four limbs but not necessarily symmetrical.
The syrinx, a fluid-filled cavity within the cervical or thoracic spinal cord, is the essential feature. Syringobulbia means a cavity in the brainstem.
Root (“radicular”) lesions frequently are accompanied by deep, aching pain along the course of the related nerve trunk. With compression of a fifth lumbar (L5) or first sacral (S1) root, as from a ruptured intervertebral disk, sciatica (radicular pain relating to the sciatic nerve trunk) is a common manifestation
In the cervical cord, the central cord syndrome produces arm weakness out of proportion to leg weakness and a “dissociated” sensory loss, meaning loss of pain and temperature sensations over the shoulders, lower neck, and upper trunk (cape distribution), in contrast to preservation of light touch, joint position, and vibration sense in these regions.
Causes: Spinal trauma, syringomyelia, and intrinsic cord tumors
Lesions in this area interrupt decussating pyramidal tract fibers destined for the legs.
Compressive lesions near the foramen magnum may produce weakness of the ipsilateral shoulder and arm followed by weakness of the ipsilateral leg, then the contralateral leg, and finally the contralateral arm, an “around the clock” pattern that may begin in any of the four limbs.
Lhermitte’s sign (unpleasant sensation)
Funicular leg pain (sciatica like leg pain) is a rare presentation of cervical cord compression. It is a referred pain due to the irritation of the ascending spinothalamic tract (Funicular means cord under tension
COMPRESSIVE MYELOPATHIES : The common causes are tumor, epidural abscess or hematoma, herniated disk, and vertebral pathology. Epidural compression due to malignancy or abscess often causes warning signs of neck or back pain, bladder disturbances, and sensory symptoms that precede the development of paralysis.
MRI findings in MS-associated myelitis typically consist of mild swelling of the cord and diffuse or multifocal “shoddy” areas of abnormal signal on T2-weighted sequences.
Contrast enhancement, indicating disruption in the blood-brain barrier associated with inflammation, is present in many acute cases.
Chiari I: >5mm descent of the caudal tip of cerebellar tonsils past the foramen magnum.
Chiari II: brainstem, fourth ventricle, and >5 mm descent of the caudal tip of cerebellar tonsils past the foramen magnum with spina bifida.
Chiari III: herniation of the cerebellum with or without the brainstem through a posterior encephalocele.
Chiari IV: Cerebellar hypoplasia or aplasia with normal posterior fossa and no hindbrain herniation.
Type II is also known as "classic" Chiari malformation or Arnold-Chiari malformation, both the cerebellum and the brain stem extend into the foramen magnum
Mechanism of Argyll Robertson pupil
Bilateral damage to the pretectal nuclei in the midbrain
Rostral midbrain in the vicinity of the cerebral aqueduct of the third ventricle, is the most likely region of damage
A lesion in this area would involve efferent pupillary fibres on the dorsal aspect of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus (associated with the response to light) while sparing the fibres associated with the response to near, which lie slightly more ventrally.