The document provides an overview of metallurgy and metal extraction processes. It discusses:
1) Different methods of metal extraction including pyrometallurgy (using heat), hydrometallurgy (using water), and electrometallurgy (using electricity).
2) Properties and applications of cast iron, which has 2-4.5% carbon content and is strong in compression.
3) The process of extracting iron from iron ore in a blast furnace, producing pig iron which can then be further processed to make wrought iron or steel.
CHAPTER 3 MINERALS ORES AND METHODES OF SEPARATION.pdfWeldebrhan Tesfaye
i. Introduction
ii. Minerals and ores
iii. Sources of metals
iv. Methods of beneficiation of ores and miners
a. Comminution
Size reduction by crushing and grinding
Minerals, ores and methods of beneficiation
Liberation
Laws of crushing and grinding
Sizing
b. Classification and concentration
c. Classification and concentration
d. Magnetic separation
e. Electro- static separation
f. Flotation
i. Introduction
ii. Pyro-metallurgy
Calcinations
Roasting
Smelting
Slags and fluxes
iii. Hydro- Metallurgy
• Advantages of hydro metallurgy
General methods of extraction
• Leaching operations
iv. Electro-metallurgy
Electrolytic decomposition
Structure of solvent media
Molten(fused) salt electrolytes
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Role –energy in metal extraction
Non - Ferrous Extraction of Metals Lecture NotesFellowBuddy.com
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Corrosion is a topic which most of the engineers find difficult. I have tried to simplify the topic & have prepared a presentation for easy understanding covering almost all types of corrosion.
CHAPTER 3 MINERALS ORES AND METHODES OF SEPARATION.pdfWeldebrhan Tesfaye
i. Introduction
ii. Minerals and ores
iii. Sources of metals
iv. Methods of beneficiation of ores and miners
a. Comminution
Size reduction by crushing and grinding
Minerals, ores and methods of beneficiation
Liberation
Laws of crushing and grinding
Sizing
b. Classification and concentration
c. Classification and concentration
d. Magnetic separation
e. Electro- static separation
f. Flotation
i. Introduction
ii. Pyro-metallurgy
Calcinations
Roasting
Smelting
Slags and fluxes
iii. Hydro- Metallurgy
• Advantages of hydro metallurgy
General methods of extraction
• Leaching operations
iv. Electro-metallurgy
Electrolytic decomposition
Structure of solvent media
Molten(fused) salt electrolytes
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Role –energy in metal extraction
Non - Ferrous Extraction of Metals Lecture NotesFellowBuddy.com
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Corrosion is a topic which most of the engineers find difficult. I have tried to simplify the topic & have prepared a presentation for easy understanding covering almost all types of corrosion.
Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for use in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement.
Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (sometimes also known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production.
Introduction to Physical Metallurgy Lecture NotesFellowBuddy.com
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Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Metallurgy is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to the production of metals, and the engineering of metal components for use in products for consumers and manufacturers. The production of metals involves the processing of ores to extract the metal they contain, and the mixture of metals, sometimes with other elements, to produce alloys. Metallurgy is distinguished from the craft of metalworking, although metalworking relies on metallurgy, as medicine relies on medical science, for technical advancement.
Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy (sometimes also known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts for 95 percent of world metal production.
Introduction to Physical Metallurgy Lecture NotesFellowBuddy.com
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This presentation will help anyone studying C1 in science. For further help, tips and advice please don`t hesitate to email me at cpugh5345@yahoo.co.uk
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
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Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
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The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
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Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Quality defects in TMT Bars, Possible causes and Potential Solutions.PrashantGoswami42
Maintaining high-quality standards in the production of TMT bars is crucial for ensuring structural integrity in construction. Addressing common defects through careful monitoring, standardized processes, and advanced technology can significantly improve the quality of TMT bars. Continuous training and adherence to quality control measures will also play a pivotal role in minimizing these defects.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
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COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
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Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
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1. UNIT-01 OVERVIEW OF METALLURGY
Syllabus:
methods of metal extraction(principle only:-
pyro, hydro and electro)
Cast v/s wrought products
Concepts:- system, phase, variable, component,
alloy, solid solution
Hume Ruthers rule of solid solubility
Allotropy and polymorphism
Concept of solidification of pure metals and
alloys
Homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation
Dendritic growth, super cooling
2. SYLLABUS(CONT…)
Equiaxed and columnar grains,
Grain and grain boundry effect
Cooling curves
Plotting of equilibrium diagrams
Lever rule
Coring
Eutectic system
Partial eutectic
Isomorphous system
4. PRINCIPLES OF METAL
EXTRACTION
Most metals do not occur as separate
substances but exist naturally as
compounds.
Metals tend to exist as metal oxides as
part of ores which are excavated from the
earth.
To recover the metal from it’s oxide the
metal ion is split from the oxygen ion.
Metals high up on the activity series have
more stable oxides than those lower down
and due to this are more difficult to split
up than those lower down.
5. METALS FROM
ROCKS
• The substances (elements or compounds) that make
up rocks are called minerals.
6. FROM ROCKS TO
METALS
• A metal ore (usually oxides, sulfides, chlorides or
carbonates) is a rock from which a useful metal is
obtained.
• The process of getting metals from ores is called the
extraction of metals.
Bauxite – an aluminium ore
7. OCCURRENCE OF
METALS
• Metal oxides – metal + oxygen
• Metal sulfides – metal + sulfur
• Metal carbonates – metal + carbon + oxygen
Some metal ores found in the Earth’s
9. • Minerals are the elements or compounds
that make up rocks.
• A metal ore is a rock containing a mineral
from which a metal is extracted.
• Most minerals are the oxides, sulfides and
carbonates of metals. For example,
bauxite is an ore containing the
compound aluminium oxide.
10. ORE
metal compound separated
from bits of sand & rocks
purified
metal compound
metal
extracted metal chemically separated
from other elements
11.
12. EXTRACTION OF THE LEAST REACTIVE
METALS
• The least reactive metals are at the bottom of the reactivity
series. Some are found as free metals.
• E.g. gold can be obtained by physical methods. The rocks are
collected and crushed to free the pieces of gold in them.
Rocks containing gold being extracted in a gold mine in
Australia
13. • These metals occur as oxides and sulfides.
• The metal sulfides are heated in air to become metal
oxides.
• The metal is then obtained by heating the oxides with
carbon.
E.g.
EXTRACTION OF LESS REACTIVE
METALS
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)
ZnO(s) +
C(s)
2ZnO(s) + 2SO2
Zn(s) + CO(g)
14. EXTRACTION OF VERY REACTIVE
METALS
• Very reactive metals are difficult to extract.
• Most reactive metals are extracted by
decomposing their compounds with
electricity. This is called electrolysis.
2KCl(l) 2K(l) + Cl2(g)
15. • The method used to extract a metal depends
on the reactivity of the metal.
• Unreactive metals, such asgold, are
often found as free (uncombined) elements.
• Less reactive metals are extracted by heating
their oxides with carbon.
• Veryreactive metals are extracted
using electrolysis.
17. HOW DOES REACTIVITY AFFECT
EXTRACTION?
potassium
sodium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium
zinc
iron
copper
gold
increasingreactivity
Metals above carbon in the reactivity
series must be extracted using
electrolysis. Electrolysis can also be
used to purify copper.
Metals less reactive than carbon can be
extracted from their ores by reduction
using carbon, coke or charcoal.
Platinum, gold, silver and copper can
occur native and do not need to be
extracted.
lead
silver
The reactivity of a metal determines how it is extracted.
(carbon)
(hydrogen)
platinum
18. THE PROCESS OF TAKING OUT PURE
METAL FROM ITS ORE IS CALLED
EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY.
Extractive metallurgy can be classified as;
i) Pyrometallurgy: extraction and purification of
metals by process by application of heat.
ii)Hydrometallurgy: the metal is seperated by
liquid solvents.
iii)Electrometallurgy: by using electrical energy
19. i)Pyrometallurgy:
Reduction of metal from its oxide is more easy
than sulphides.
Sulphides are roasted (heated) to oxidising
temp to convert into inoxide form.
Generally temp varies between 500 to 2000
Pyrometallurgy has following three steps:
a) calcination
b) roasting
c) smelting
20. Metals are often found combined with oxygen as oxides. To obtain
the metal, the oxygen must be removed.
In this reaction, the carbon removes oxygen from lead oxide. This occurs
because carbon is more reactive than lead.
WHAT IS REDUCTION?
The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
Carbon can be used to extract metals by reduction.
lead oxide + carbon lead
carbon
monoxide+
PbO C Pb CO+ +
metal oxide (in ore) metal
reduction
The addition of oxygen to a substance is called oxidation.
21. PYROMETALLURGY (CONT….)
a) Calcination : in this step elements like carbon and
water are eliminated. This is endothermic reaction
b) Roasting : in this process ore is brought into
convertible form
e.g. sulphides are converted into oxides.
c) smelting: in this process, the oxides are converted to
metal by reaction with carbon and sulphur in blast or
electrical furnace.
slag is removed with the help of flux
the charge is solid and the output is liquid metal
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)
ZnO(s) +
C(s)
2ZnO(s) + 2SO2
Zn(s) + CO(g)
22. PYROMETALLURGY (CONT….)
Advantages:
1. As it is a high temperature process the reaction
is fast, therefore more metal is produced.
2. The cost of reducing agent and raw material is
less.
3. Liquid metal and slag separate out and helps in
extraction process
4. Metlas like Fe, Zn, Pb, Cu, Al, Mg, As can be
extracted by using this method
23. ii) Hydrometallurgy :
Hydrometallurgy takes place with help of aqueous
solution or water
Removal of impurities by different physical methods,
grinding are the basic processes in preparation of ores
in hydrometallurgy.
leaching:
with the help of available liquid reagent the metallic
ore is dissolved. The reagent is known as liquor.
The rate of process will vary with temperature and
pressure of liquor.
With the help of settling, filteration, the leaching
agent is separated and then by precipitation,
electrolysis the metal is taken out
24. HYDROMETALLURGY (CONT….)
Advantages:
1. Suitable for low grade ore.
2. Valuable byproducts can be recovered.
3. Less environmental pollution
4. Less costly as compared to pyrometallurgy.
5. It can produce metals like nodules or powder
form
6. Even in leaching , low temperatures are involved
25. HYDROMETALLURGY (CONT….)
Disadvantages:
1. Process requires large volume.
2. Handling of chemicals require special care.
3. Large space is required.
4. Chances of corrosion and erosion in handling
equipments
5. Disposal of effluments is problamatic
26. iii) Electrometallurgy:
It is a branch of metallurgy that deals with the
application of electric current either for electrolytic
deposition or as a source of heat.
Electrometallurgy is related with electrodeposition.
There are four types of this process:
a) Electrowinning : it represents extraction of metal
from ores
b) Electrorefining : it represents purification of metals.
c) Electroplating : in this deposition of a layer of one
metal on another metal is involved.
d) Electroforming : it includes mfg of thin metal parts
through electroplating
27. 8
IRON
ORE
Blast Furnace
Pig Iron
Smelted, Hammered, Re-
heated, Rolled
Smelted (separate the metallic
constituent)
,Alloyed, Rolled
Wrought Iron Cast Iron Mild Iron(Steel)
Re- melted, Poured
into sand molds
28. PROPERTI
ES
• Cast iron.: 2.0 – 4.5% Carbon content
• Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements.
• Great for the environment. Can be recycled more easily than
PVC.
• It is strong in compression, but weak in tension and bending.
• Prefabrication enabled portability—entire buildings could be
constructed in one place and shipped all over the world.
• Its strength and stiffness deteriorate when subjected to high heat.
• Its structure is crystalline and relatively brittle.
• They don't echo when water moves through as compared to
PVC, because of dense material.
• It does not rust.
30. WROUGHT IRON
Wrought Iron Is A form of Iron With A Very Low Carbon Content (0.25%) In
Contrast
To Cast iron (2.1% to 4%).
"Grain" Resembling Wood, Is Visible When It Is Bent To The Point Of
Failure.
Wrought Iron Is Tough, Malleable, Ductile And Easily Welded.
Purest form of iron in which the total impurities do not exceed 0.5%.
Wrought iron is much more expensive to produce than cast. Most wrought iron
work are joined by riveting.
MAJOR EXAMPLE ARE-
1.Iron pillar at Delhi, India, containing 98% wrought iron.
2.The Eiffel tower
31. PROPERTIES
•It can be used to form temporary magnets but cannot be magnetised
permanently.
•It fuses with difficulty.
•high elasticity and tensile strength
•Unaffected by saline water.
•If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous break.
•Capable of bearing 24 tons per square inch ultimate tensile strain, & 20 tons of
compression and shearing.
.
32. WROUGHT IRON:
It is a mechanical mixture of pure iron with
silicate slag.
Generally wrought iron consist 0.02% C , 0.05%P,
0.02%Silicon, 0.008% sulphur, 0.05 to 1.5% slag
and remaining amount iron.
Wrought iron is never cast, because its shaping is
accomplished by hammering, pressing, forging,
etc
Wrought iron is popular for its high ductility and
for which it can be forged and welded
The ultimate strength of wrought iron can be
increased by cold working.
It has resistance towards shock, fatigue, and
corrosion
33. WROUGHT IRON (CONT…)
The mechanical properties of wrought iron is
similar to pure iron.
Also wrought iron has property of rapid recovering
from overstrain due to sudden shock without
permanent failure.
The structure of wrought iron shows physical
association with base metal and slag.
The slag or iron silicate
may look like ribbon or
platelets in
microstructure.
34. In
fencing
In main entrance
gates
In
railings
As
balusters
USES
• Used for rivets, chains,
ornamental iron work, railway
couplings, bridges, water and
steam pipes.
• Roofing sheets, corrugated
sheets.
• It is manufactured for bolts and
nuts, horse shoe bars,
handrails, straps for timer roof
trusses, boiler tubes, roofing
sheets, etc.
35. WROUGHT IRON (CONT…)
Applications of Wrought Iron:
Wrought iron is available in various forms such as
plates, sheets, bars,structures, rivets, chains and
tubular products(pipies, tubes, castings)
a) Building construction
b) Rail road and marine: diesel exhaust and air
brake piping
c) Industrial : condenser tubes, heat exchangers,
acid or alkali process lines
d) Public works: bridge railings, drainage lines,
sluge tanks and lines.
37. COMPARISON BETWEEN WROUGHT IRON ,CAST
IRON& STEEL
Wrought iron Cast Iron Steel
Composition Purest Contains up to
0.25% C
Crude form
containing 2-4% C
Midway
Melting point 1500 degree Celsius 1200 degree
Celsius
1300-1400 degree
Celsius
Hardness Cannot be hardened
or tempered
Hard, hardened by
heating & sudden
cooling
Can be hardened &
tempered
Strength compressive strength
is
2.0 tonnes/sq cm
ultimate tensile
strength 3.15
tonnes/sq cm
Comp. strength 6.3-
7.1 tonnes/sq cm
Ultimate tensile
strength 1.26 to
1.57tonnes/sq cm.
Comp strength 4.75
-25.2 tonnes/ sq cm
Ultimate tensile
strength is 5.51 to
11.02 t /sq m
38. Wrought iron Cast Iron Steel
Malleability
Ductility
Tough, malleable,
ductile & moderately
elastic
Brittle & cannot
be welded or
rolled into sheets
Tough, malleable &
Ductile
Reaction to
sudden shock
Cannot stand heavy
shocks
Does not absorb
shocks
Absorbs shocks
Welding Easily welded Brittle and cannot
be welded or
rolled into sheets
Can be welded
39.
40.
41. METHODS OF METAL EXTRACTION:
1.Electrolyis
2. Reduction with carbon(carbon monoxide)
3. Heating of the ore.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
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52.
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58.
59. METHODS OF METAL EXTRACTION:
1. Electrolysis: this entails the immersing of a
positively and negatively charged electrical poles to a
molten or aqueous solution of a substance. The passage of
the current causes positively charged ions to be attracted
to the negative pole and negatively charged ions to be
attracted to the positively charged pole. While at the
Negative pole, positively charged ions gain electrons to
become neutral atoms and are deposited on the negative
pole or fall to the bottom as a precipitate. The same occurs
to positively charged ionsat the negative pole. The overall
effect is that the constituents of the substance are
separated and usually are deposited on the Positive Pole or
Anode and the Negative pole or Cathode or it may sink to
the bottom of the container as a precipitate
60. METHODS OF METAL EXTRACTION:
1.Electrolyis:
Most powerful means of extraction.
most expensive.
Can only be used where electricity is abundant.
2. Reduction with carbon(carbon monoxide)
Cheaper to operate than electrolysis.
Labor intensive .
Expensive to startup as large industrial equipment is
used.
3. Heating of the ore.
Cheap
Can only be used on the most unreactive of
metals(Mercury,gold,silver,etc.)
14kilowat
hours =
1kg of
Aluminiu
m
62. EXTRACTION OF IRON
The extraction of Iron is a reductive
process whereby oxygen is removed from
the iron oxide by carbon monoxide. The
process occurs within a Steel blast furnace
lined with refractive(fire) bricks at
temperatures from 800C upto 1900C. The
Chamber is kept hot by jets of hot air at
over 800C, giving it the name “Blast”
furnace.
63. Start materials:
Iron Ore or Hematite
Lime or Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Coke a carbonaceous ashy substance
Iron Ore
Lime
Coke
64. EXTRACTION OF IRON: STEP1
BURNING OF LIME
Iron ore,
limestone(CaCO3) and
coke are delivered to the
top of the blast furnace,
where the temperature is
around 800C.
The lime stone burns at
800C yielding calcium
oxide(CaO) and Carbon
Dioxide(CO2).
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2
The Calcium oxide causes
impurities which are
present with the ore to fall
as a precipitate near to
the bottom producing a
layer of “slag”.
65. EXTRACTION OF IRON:
STEP 2 PRODUCTION OF CARBON
MONOXIDE
The carbon Dioxide
yielded from the Burning
of Lime passes over the
coke. Coke is a coal like
substance produced from
the heating of Tar and
Petrochemicals without
heat and contains a high
percentage of carbon. The
Carbon atoms of coke
remove a single oxygen
from each molecule of
CO2 producing carbon
monoxide
CO2 + C 2 CO
Coke
66. EXTRACTION OF IRON:
STEP 3 REDUCTION OF IRON
The Carbon monoxide yielded
from the reaction of Carbon
dioxide and lime removes the
oxygen from Iron oxide.
Each Carbon monoxide molecule
is capable of binding a single
oxygen so 3 are used to completely
remove all oxygen from the iron
oxide.
Fe2O3 + 3 CO -> 2Fe(s) + 3 CO2
The molten iron sinks to the
bottom lowest level of the furnace,
where it can be tapped off.
The iron produced by this process
is called pig iron and is 95%
pure.
67. EXTRACTION OF IRON: OVERVIEW
Production of iron from it’s ore
uses Carbon monoxide to reduce
Iron oxide to iron atoms.
1.Lime burns
CaCO3 -> CaO + CO2
2. CO2 reduced by coke to CO
CO2 + C -> 2 CO
3. Iron oxide reduced by CO
Fe2O3 + 3CO -> 2Fe + 3CO2
Removes impuritiies :
slag production
68. Q & A
What is Limestone made of?
How are impurities from the ore removed?
What is the layer of precipitated impurities
called?
Where does the carbon dioxide produced during
the process come from?
What is the function of Coke during the process?
What substance is responsible fo reducing the
iron oxide to iron?
What is the level of purity of the iron produced
by this process?