The document provides an overview of the key components of a computer system, including the Von Neumann model, memory, ALU, input/output units, control unit, RAM, ROM, secondary storage, operating systems, and applications. It describes how memory is organized into addressable cells and how RAM and ROM differ. It explains the fetch-execute cycle and roles of the control unit and different input/output, storage, and system software. Finally, it briefly discusses the use of statistics and computing in biological applications like genomics and proteomics.

1. SUBMITTEDTO:
Dr. I. C. Mohanty
OUAT, BHUBANESWAR

2. CONTENTS
Organizational aspect:
1. Introduction
2. The Von-Neumann Computer Model
3. Memory
4. ALU
5. Input Output units
6. Control Unit
7. RAM & ROM
8. Secondary Storage Devices
9. Operating System & Application System
10.Memory, Process, & CPU Management
Operational aspect:
i. ALU operations
ii. Input & Output operations
iii. Control unit operations
iv. RAM & ROM operations
v. Secondary Storage Devices operations

14. MEMORY
 Memory is a collection of cells, each with a unique physical address.
 We use the generic word cell here rather than byte, because the number of bits in each
addressable location, called the memory's addressability, varies from one machine to
another.
 Today, most computers are byte addressable.
 To fully illustrate the concept of memory, take a computer with 4GB of RAM as an
example.
The memory consists of 4 × 230 bytes, which means each byte of the computer is
uniquely addressable, and the addressability of the machine is 8 bits. The cells in memory
are numbered consecutively beginning with 0.

15. INPUT/OUTPUT UNITS
All of the computing power in the world would not be useful if one could not input values into
the calculations from the outside or report to the outside the results of said calculations. Input
and output units are the channels through which the computer communicates with the outside
world.
An Input Unit is a device through which data and programs from the outside world are entered
into the computer. The first input units interpreted holes punched on paper tape or cards.
Modern-day input devices, however, include, but are not limited to; keyboards, mice, cameras
(also known as, simply, webcams), and scanning devices.
An Output Unit is a device through which results stored in the computer memory are made
available to the outside world. Examples include printers and screen monitors.

16. THE FETCH-EXECUTE CYCLE
The process cycle includes four steps:
1. Fetch the next instruction,
2. Decode the instruction
3. Get data if needed,
4. Execute the instruction.
Control unit:

17. RAM & ROM
RAM stands for Random-Access Memory. RAM is memory in which each cell (usually a byte)
can be directly accessed. Inherent in the idea of being able to access each location is the
ability to change the contents of each location. That is, storing something else into that place
can change the bit pattern in each cell.
In addition to RAM, most computers contain a second kind of memory called ROM. ROM
stands for Read-Only Memory. The contents in locations in ROM cannot be changed. Their
contents are permanent and cannot be altered by a second operation. Placing the bit pattern
in ROM is called burning. The bit pattern is burnt either at the time the ROM is manufactured
or at the time the computer parts are assembled.
RAM and ROM are differentiated by a very basic property; RAM is volatile, and ROM is not.
This means that RAM does not retain its bit configuration when the power is turned off, but
ROM does.

18. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES
An input device is the means by which data and programs are entered into the
computer and stored into memory. An output device is the means by which
results are sent back to the user. Because most of main memory is volatile and
limited, it is essential that there be other types of storage devices programs and
data can be stored when they are no longer being processed or when the
machine is not turned on. These other types of storage devices (other than that
of main memory) are called secondary or auxiliary storage devices. Because data
must be read from them and written to them, each storage device is also an input
and an output device.
Examples of secondary storage devices include;
Magnetic Tape,
Magnetic Disks,
CDs and DVDs,
Flash Drives,
External Hardrives

19. OPERATING SYSTEMS AND APPLICATION SYSTEMS
Application Software is written to address
specific needs — to solve problems in the real
world.
Word processing programs, games, inventory
control systems, automobile diagnostic
programs, and missile guidance programs are all
application software.
System Software manages a computer system
at a more fundamental level.
It provides the tools and an environment in
which application software can be created and
run.
Operating System of a computer is the core of
its system software.
An operating system manages
computer resources, such as memory, and
input/output devices, and provides an interface
through which a human can interact with the
computer.

39. COMPUTER USE IN BIOSTATISTICS
 Biostatistics(or biometry) is the application of statistics to a
wide range of topics in biology.
 Design of biological experiments, collection, summarization
and analysis of data from those experiments, interpretation
and inference from those results.
 All educational programmes in biostatistics are at PG level.
 Development in biostatistics like bootstrapping,
resampling, microarrays, next generation sequencers(for
genomics), mass spectrometry(for proteomics).
 Applications:-
>Population genetics, and statistical genetics in order to
link variation in genotype with a variation in phenotype.
>Biological sequence analysis.