Ontology is the study of being or reality. It deals with questions about what entities exist and how they can be grouped, related within a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and differences. There are differing philosophical views about the nature of reality, including whether reality is objective and exists independently of human observation, or is subjective and constructed through human experiences and social interactions. Ontological questions also concern whether social entities should be viewed as objective, external realities or as social constructions.

1. What is Ontology?
 Ontology can be defined as “the science or study of being”[1] and it deals with the nature
of reality.
 It is a system of belief that reflects an interpretation of an individual about what constitutes
a fact.

2. Philosophical Assumptions of Ontology
 The philosophical assumptions of ontology take different forms given the interpretive
framework used by the inquirer [2].
 Here are the different views about ontology (about the nature of the reality).

3.  Pragmatism: Reality is what is useful, is practical, and works.
 Post positivism: A single reality exist beyond ourselves, out there. Researcher may not be
able to understand it or get to it because of lack of absoluteness.
 Social Constructivism: Multiple realities are constructed through our lived experiences
and interactions with others.

4.  Transformative/Modernism: Participation between researcher and communities/
individuals being studied. Often a subjective reality emerges.
 Critical, Race, Feminism, Queer, Disabilities: Reality is based on power and identity
struggles. Privilege of oppression based on race or ethnicity, class, gender mental abilities,
sexual preferences [3].

6.  Questions of social ontology are concerned with the nature of social entities.
 The central point of orientation here is the question of whether social entities can and
should be considered objective entities that have a reality external to social actors, or
whether they can and should be considered social constructions built up from the
perceptions and actions of social actors.

7.  In simple terms, ontology is associated with a central question of whether social entities
need to be perceived as objective or subjective.
 For this reason, objectivism (pozitivism) and constructionism (subjectivism) can be
specified as two important aspects of ontology. Their differences can be illustrated by
reference to some common and central terms in social science.

8. Objectivism
 Objectivism “portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social
actors concerned with their existence”[4].
 It is an ontological position that implies that social phenomena confront us as external facts
that are beyond our reach or influence (see Key concept 2.5).
 It asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent
of social actors”[5].

9.  ‘Culture’ may be an example of Objectivism.
 Cultures can be viewed as repositories of widely shared values and customs into which people are
socialized so that they can function as good citizens or as full participants.
 Cultures constrain us because we internalize their beliefs and values. In the case of culture, the social
entity in question comes across as something external to the actor and as having an almost tangible
reality of its own.

10.  The term ‘Organization’ may be another example of it.
 Organization can be discussed as a concrete object. It has rules and regulations. It adopts standardized
procedures for getting things done. People are appointed to different jobs within a division of labor.
There is a hierarchy. It has a mission statement.
 The degree to which these features exist from organization to organization is variable, but in thinking
in these terms we are tending to the view that an organization has a reality that is external to the
individuals who inhabit it.

11. Constructionism
 Constructionism (subjectivism/interpretivism) remarks that social phenomena is created
from perceptions and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their
existence.
 It can be defined as “ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their
meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors”.[6]
 This position challenges the suggestion that categories such as culture are pre-given and
therefore confront social actors as external realities that they have no role in fashioning.

12. Culture Term
 Instead of seeing culture as an external reality that acts on and compels people, it can be
taken to be an emergent reality in a continuous state of construction and reconstruction.
 Becker (1982: 521), for example, has suggested that ‘people create culture continuously.’ It
implies that social phenomena and categories such as culture are not only produced through
social interaction but that they are in a constant state of revision.

13. Organization Term
 Instead of taking the view that order in organizations is a pre-existing characteristic, it can
be argued that the social order of an organization is an outcome of agreed-upon patterns of
action that were themselves the products of negotiations between the different parties
involved.

14.  In recent years, the term has also come to include the notion that researchers’ own accounts
of the social world are constructions.
 In other words, the researcher always presents a specific version of social reality, rather
than one that can be regarded as definitive.

16. The Pros and Cons
Advantages of Objectivism
 Economical collection of a large amount of data
 Clear theoretical focus for the research from the outset
 Greater opportunity for the researcher to retain control of the research process
 Easily comparable data

17. Advantages of Constructionism
 Facilitates understanding of how and why
 Enables the researcher to be alive to changes which occur
 Good at understanding social processes
 Allows for complexity and contextual factors

18. Disadvantages of Objectivism
 Inflexible – direction often cannot be changed once data collection has started
 Weak at understanding social processes
 Often does not discover the meanings people attach to social phenomena

19. Disadvantages of Constructionism
 Data collection can be time consuming
 Data analysis is challenging and can be complex
 Researcher has to live with the uncertainty that clear patterns may not emerge
 Generally perceived as less credible by ‘nonresearchers’ [7].

20. References
 [1] Blaikie, N. (2010) “Designing Social Research” Polity Press
 [2] Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among five
traditions. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE.
 [3] Lincoln, Y. S., and Tierney, W. G. (2004). ‘Qualitative Research and Institutional Review
Boards’, Qualitative Inquiry, 10: 219 –34.
 [4] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students”
6th edition, Pearson Education Limited
 [5] Bryman, A. (2012) “Social Research Methods” 4th edition, Oxford University Press
 [6] Bryman, A. (2012) “Social Research Methods” 4th edition, Oxford University Press
 [7] Raddon, A. (2010). Early stage research training: Epistemology & ontology in social science
research. Generic Skills Training for Research Students.