This document provides a critique of the philosophical underpinnings of mainstream social science research. It suggests that social science research is typically underpinned by a naïve realist ontological position, a positivist epistemological position, and a value-free axiological position. However, these positions promote a Eurocentric perspective. As an alternative, the document proposes a "muliversal" ontological position, a positivist-hermeneutic epistemological position that acknowledges the role of interpretation, and a value-laden axiological position for social science research conducted by non-Western scholars. This would help produce more context-relevant knowledge.
SPECIAL ISSUE CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCHCRITICAL RE.docxsusanschei
SPECIAL ISSUE: CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCH
CRITICAL REALISM IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH
John Mingers
Kent Business School, University of Kent,
Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NZ UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Alistair Mutch
Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street,
Nottingham NG1 4BU UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Leslie Willcocks
London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street,
London WC2A 2AE UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Introduction
There has been growing interest in a range of disciplines
(Ackroyd and Fleetwood 2000; Danermark et al. 2002;
Fleetwood 1999; Fleetwood and Ackroyd 2004), not least
information systems (Dobson 2001; Longshore Smith 2006;
Mingers 2004b; Mutch 2010b; Volkoff et al. 2007; Wynn and
Williams 2012) in ideas derived from the philosophical tradi-
tion of critical realism. Critical realism offers exciting pros-
pects in shifting attention toward the real problems that we
face and their underlying causes, and away from a focus on
data and methods of analysis. As such, it offers a robust
framework for the use of a variety of methods in order to gain
a better understanding of the meaning and significance of
information systems in the contemporary world.
Although the term critical realism has been used in a number
of different traditions, we are primarily concerned with that
developed from the foundational work of Roy Bhaskar in the
philosophy of science, later extended in the social arena by
authors such as Archer and Sayer (Archer et al. 1998; Bhaskar
1978, 1979; Mingers 2004b; Sayer 2000). In this tradition,
the benefits of CR are seen as:
• CR defends a strongly realist ontology that there is an
existing, causally efficacious, world independent of our
knowledge. It defends this against both classical positi-
vism that would reduce the world to that which can be
empirically observed and measured, and the various
forms of constructivism that would reduce the world to
our human knowledge of it. Hence it is realist.
• CR recognizes that our access to this world is in fact
limited and always mediated by our perceptual and theo-
retical lenses. It accepts epistemic relativity (that knowl-
edge is always local and historical), but not judgmental
relativity (that all viewpoints must be equally valid).
Hence it is critical in a Kantian sense.
• CR accepts the existence of different types of objects of
knowledge—physical, social, and conceptual—which
have different ontological and epistemological charac-
teristics. They therefore require a range of different
research methods and methodologies to access them.
Since a particular object of research may well have
different characteristics, it is likely that a mixed-method
research strategy (i.e., a variety of methods in the same
research study) will be necessary and CR supports this.
In this introduction, we will first introduce the basic concepts
of critical realism as a philosophy of science.
.There are different paths to reality, they are determined by the knower, being instrumental methodological study object, epistemological axis, among others. Reality presents several faces, what is observable and what is perceived sensory empirical data obtained correspond to the visible, the main thing is to discover the hidden side, which is behind the perceptible or data. Epistemology is the whole process of obtaining scientific knowledge, ranging from the pre knowledge to get to know the hidden side, one thing is what is seen and what is not, and one that is not seen, is really it is.
SPECIAL ISSUE CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCHCRITICAL RE.docxsusanschei
SPECIAL ISSUE: CRITICAL REALISM IN IS RESEARCH
CRITICAL REALISM IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH
John Mingers
Kent Business School, University of Kent,
Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NZ UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Alistair Mutch
Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street,
Nottingham NG1 4BU UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Leslie Willcocks
London School of Economics and Political Science, Houghton Street,
London WC2A 2AE UNITED KINGDOM {[email protected]}
Introduction
There has been growing interest in a range of disciplines
(Ackroyd and Fleetwood 2000; Danermark et al. 2002;
Fleetwood 1999; Fleetwood and Ackroyd 2004), not least
information systems (Dobson 2001; Longshore Smith 2006;
Mingers 2004b; Mutch 2010b; Volkoff et al. 2007; Wynn and
Williams 2012) in ideas derived from the philosophical tradi-
tion of critical realism. Critical realism offers exciting pros-
pects in shifting attention toward the real problems that we
face and their underlying causes, and away from a focus on
data and methods of analysis. As such, it offers a robust
framework for the use of a variety of methods in order to gain
a better understanding of the meaning and significance of
information systems in the contemporary world.
Although the term critical realism has been used in a number
of different traditions, we are primarily concerned with that
developed from the foundational work of Roy Bhaskar in the
philosophy of science, later extended in the social arena by
authors such as Archer and Sayer (Archer et al. 1998; Bhaskar
1978, 1979; Mingers 2004b; Sayer 2000). In this tradition,
the benefits of CR are seen as:
• CR defends a strongly realist ontology that there is an
existing, causally efficacious, world independent of our
knowledge. It defends this against both classical positi-
vism that would reduce the world to that which can be
empirically observed and measured, and the various
forms of constructivism that would reduce the world to
our human knowledge of it. Hence it is realist.
• CR recognizes that our access to this world is in fact
limited and always mediated by our perceptual and theo-
retical lenses. It accepts epistemic relativity (that knowl-
edge is always local and historical), but not judgmental
relativity (that all viewpoints must be equally valid).
Hence it is critical in a Kantian sense.
• CR accepts the existence of different types of objects of
knowledge—physical, social, and conceptual—which
have different ontological and epistemological charac-
teristics. They therefore require a range of different
research methods and methodologies to access them.
Since a particular object of research may well have
different characteristics, it is likely that a mixed-method
research strategy (i.e., a variety of methods in the same
research study) will be necessary and CR supports this.
In this introduction, we will first introduce the basic concepts
of critical realism as a philosophy of science.
.There are different paths to reality, they are determined by the knower, being instrumental methodological study object, epistemological axis, among others. Reality presents several faces, what is observable and what is perceived sensory empirical data obtained correspond to the visible, the main thing is to discover the hidden side, which is behind the perceptible or data. Epistemology is the whole process of obtaining scientific knowledge, ranging from the pre knowledge to get to know the hidden side, one thing is what is seen and what is not, and one that is not seen, is really it is.
Descartes Epistemology
Research Philosophy: Epistemology
Epistemology Paper
Epistemology Vs. Theory Of Knowledge
Literature Review On Epistemology
Epistemic Issue
Essay on A Study of Epistemology
On Epistemology and Skepticism Essay
Personal Epistemology Essay
Epistemology
Epistemology In Business And Management
Examples Of Epistemology
Epistemology and Its Influences
Epistemology Paper
Personal Epistemology
Naturalized Epistemology Essays
Epistemology and Knowledge Essay
Epistemology And Belief Of Epistemology Essay
Scientism, or the unity of scientific method. The positivist
methodology does not see any difference between the
natural and the social sciences. The adoption however, of
the unity of the scientific method is accepted in tandem
with the notion of the predominant role of the natural
sciences, in which the social sciences see their model.
The outcome is what we call scientism, that is the view
that only the natural sciences can produce the semantic
interpretation of knowledge.
The contemporary philosophy of science (epistemology) featuring K.Popper, T.Kuhn, I.Lakatos, P.Feyerabend, Hanson among others, has exercised a decisive critique to the dominant views of the positivist and neo-positivist model of knowledge and has in fact undermined its credibility.
A quest for depth and breadth of insight through combination of positivism an...Awais e Siraj
Dr. Awais e Siraj Managing Director Genzee Solutions, A Strategy, Balanced Scorecard, Scenario Planning, Competency Based Human Resource Management Consulting Company
THE SELF CRITICISM OF SCIENCE - ALEXIS KARPOUZOSalexis karpouzos
The neoteric human being is now being cut off from the order of nature and establishes itself as the rationally re- flecting and acting subject which is now posited against the object of its cognitive and practical activity. Civiliza- tion is constituted as the product of human activity, as an artifact and technical construct. iWth this development, human civilization is transformed to a ‘quasi nature’, aim- ing to correct and replace nature, and man assumes the nature of a technical existence. By ‘technical existence’ we mean the prevalence of a one-dimensional image of the human person as the producer of rational hypotheses and interpretations and the downgrading and degrada- tion of the non-rational element of human existence, i.e. the radical imagination as a creative capacity, which forms the a priori condition and prerequisite for social activity. This constitutive element of the modern world (man, as the producer of rational hypotheses) and its ar- ticulation with the ideology of techno-scientific progress and the evolution of the machine that transforms the methods and theories of natural sciences, arming these with new tools and constantly renovating their research and experimental capabilities, finally led to the replace- ment of religious and metaphysical dogmas by the blind faith to the dogma of technical and scientific progress.
Descartes Epistemology
Research Philosophy: Epistemology
Epistemology Paper
Epistemology Vs. Theory Of Knowledge
Literature Review On Epistemology
Epistemic Issue
Essay on A Study of Epistemology
On Epistemology and Skepticism Essay
Personal Epistemology Essay
Epistemology
Epistemology In Business And Management
Examples Of Epistemology
Epistemology and Its Influences
Epistemology Paper
Personal Epistemology
Naturalized Epistemology Essays
Epistemology and Knowledge Essay
Epistemology And Belief Of Epistemology Essay
Scientism, or the unity of scientific method. The positivist
methodology does not see any difference between the
natural and the social sciences. The adoption however, of
the unity of the scientific method is accepted in tandem
with the notion of the predominant role of the natural
sciences, in which the social sciences see their model.
The outcome is what we call scientism, that is the view
that only the natural sciences can produce the semantic
interpretation of knowledge.
The contemporary philosophy of science (epistemology) featuring K.Popper, T.Kuhn, I.Lakatos, P.Feyerabend, Hanson among others, has exercised a decisive critique to the dominant views of the positivist and neo-positivist model of knowledge and has in fact undermined its credibility.
A quest for depth and breadth of insight through combination of positivism an...Awais e Siraj
Dr. Awais e Siraj Managing Director Genzee Solutions, A Strategy, Balanced Scorecard, Scenario Planning, Competency Based Human Resource Management Consulting Company
THE SELF CRITICISM OF SCIENCE - ALEXIS KARPOUZOSalexis karpouzos
The neoteric human being is now being cut off from the order of nature and establishes itself as the rationally re- flecting and acting subject which is now posited against the object of its cognitive and practical activity. Civiliza- tion is constituted as the product of human activity, as an artifact and technical construct. iWth this development, human civilization is transformed to a ‘quasi nature’, aim- ing to correct and replace nature, and man assumes the nature of a technical existence. By ‘technical existence’ we mean the prevalence of a one-dimensional image of the human person as the producer of rational hypotheses and interpretations and the downgrading and degrada- tion of the non-rational element of human existence, i.e. the radical imagination as a creative capacity, which forms the a priori condition and prerequisite for social activity. This constitutive element of the modern world (man, as the producer of rational hypotheses) and its ar- ticulation with the ideology of techno-scientific progress and the evolution of the machine that transforms the methods and theories of natural sciences, arming these with new tools and constantly renovating their research and experimental capabilities, finally led to the replace- ment of religious and metaphysical dogmas by the blind faith to the dogma of technical and scientific progress.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
A Critique Of The Philosophical Underpinnings Of Mainstream Social Science Research
1. The following ad supports maintaining our C.E.E.O.L. service
ؚͻؘԢԕԤԕԡԥᴒͻԟ₶ͻԤԔᴒͻ꜡ԔԕԘԟԣԟԠԔԕԝͶԘͻᴂԞᴑᴒԢԠԕԞԞԕԞ₷ԣͻԟ₶ͻꜙͶԕԞԣԤԢᴒͶԙͻᴀԟԝԕͶԘ
ᴀԝԕᴒԞԝᴒͻϸᴒԣᴒͶԢԝԔ
ᶥؚͻؘԢԕԤԕԡԥᴒͻԟ₶ͻԤԔᴒͻ꜡ԔԕԘԟԣԟԠԔԕԝͶԘͻᴂԞᴑᴒԢԠԕԞԞԕԞ₷ԣͻԟ₶ͻꜙͶԕԞԣԤԢᴒͶԙͻᴀԟԝԕͶԘͻᴀԝԕᴒԞԝᴒ
ϸᴒԣᴒͶԢԝԔᶦ
ᶠͳ͚ᶑᶣ⁷ᶦ͚ᶍᶮᶮᶭᶬᶥ
ᴀԟԥԢԝᴒⱠ
ؘԝͶᴑᴒԙԕԝԥԣͻⱶԞԤᴒԢԞͶԤԕԟԞͶԘͻᴀԝԕᴒԞԤԕ₶ԕԝͻⱷԟԥԢԞͶԘͻӾؘԝͶᴑᴒԙԕԝԥԣͻⱶԞԤᴒԢԞͶԤԕԟԞͶԘͻᴀԝԕᴒԞԤԕ₶ԕԝͻⱷԟԥԢԞͶԘӿԒͻԕԣԣԥᴒⱠͻ᷇᷆ͻ᷅
᷊᷈᷆᷇ԒͻԠͶ₷ᴒԣⱠͻ᷊᷈᷈ԓ᷊᷈᷾ԒͻԟԞͻԧԧԧ᷄ԝᴒᴒԟԘ᷄ԝԟԙ᷄
2. 242
A Critique of the Philosophical Underpinnings
of Mainstream Social Science Research
Seth Oppong, PhD Candidate
African University College of Communicaion & University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Abstract
The progress of the social science disciplines depends on conducing relevant
research. However, research methodology adopted and choices made during
the course of the research project are underpinned by varying ontological,
epistemological and axiological posiions that may be known or unknown to the
researcher. This paper sought to criically explore the philosophical underpinnings of
the social science research. It was suggested that a “muliversal” ontological posiion,
posiivist-hermeneuic epistemological posiion and value-laden axiological posiion
should be adopted for social science research by non-western scholars as alternaive to
the dominant naïve realist, posiivist, and value-free orientaion. Against the backdrop
of producing context-relevant knowledge, non-western scholars are encouraged to
re-examine their philosophical posiions in the conduct of social science research.
Keywords: epistemology; ontology; axiology; social science research; indigenizaion
Introduction
At the heart of social science is research. Indeed, it is research that disinguishes social
studies from the social sciences. Whether publicly acknowledged or not, each research
project in the social science is underpinned some epistemological, ontological, and
axiological posiions. Ontology is the philosophical posiion about the nature of reality
whiles epistemology focuses on what consitutes valid knowledge and how we can
obtain such knowledge (West & Turner, 2000; Oppong, 2013). They further describe axiology
as the philosophical posiion that addresses itself to the place of value in theory and
research.
Similarly, in an examinaion of the epistemological Smith and Darlington (1996) views
that philosophical quesions of ontology as percepions about the world (realism
or idealism) and ideniied epistemological quesions relaing to origin of behaviour
(determinism or free-will) and nature of the mind (materialism or mentalism). These
philosophical posiions inform choices made in terms of research design and tools for
data collecion as well as data analysis techniques adopted in social science research.
However, these underlying philosophies promote subtly the dominant Eurocentric
perspecive that oten serves to undermine endogenous systems for knowledge
producion. The purpose of this paper is to provide a criique of the dominant
Access via CEEOL NL Germany
3. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 243
philosophies that are adopted in social science research globally with the objecive of
providing alternaive perspecives that are more decolonial in nature.
Philosophical Underpinnings
As stated earlier, social science research is underpinned by diferent ontological,
epistemological, and axiological posiions and that their relaionships may be
conceptualized as in the igure below. In Figure 1, philosophical psychology refers to
the ethno-philosophy.
Philosophical psychology
Axiological Posiion
Ontological Posiion
Epistemological Posiion
Research Methodology
Figure 1: Relaionship between the Various Philosophical Posiions Underlying Social Science
Research1
Figure 1 suggests that the ontological posiion adopted by the social science researcher
inluences his or her choice of an epistemological posiion. In addiion, the research
methodology adopted is inluenced by the epistemology. This indicates that lying
deep underneath the decisions about research methodology are the ontological and
epistemological posiions. Again, the ontology and epistemology are inluenced by
the axiological posiions which are also inluenced by the philosophical psychology or
ethno-philosophies of the researchers.
However, the dominant ethno-philosophy inluencing social science researchers is
western-centric. Noing that the mainstream body of knowledge of the social science
disciplines does not serve non-western socieies well (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013; Oppong,
2013a, 2013b), it is only reasonable to criically examine the paradigms that inform the
producion of such knowledge. Thus, in the ensuring paragraphs, a criique of each of
the philosophical posiions is presented.
Ontological Position
As indicated earlier, ontological quesion focuses on the nature of reality (West & Turner,
2000) or percepions about the world (Smith & Darlingon, 1996). There are two opposites
1
Source: Author’s Own Construct
4. 244 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
that a researcher can adopt as the ontological posiion for any given research. On
one hand, there are those who subscribe to the fact that reality exists independent
of the individual perceiving it; this posiion is referred to as realism. This posiion
characterizes both posiivism (Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2008; Smith & Darlington, 1996) and, to
some extent, criical realism (Sayer, 1993; Lawson & Staeheli, 1991; Bergene, 2007; Prat, 2009). For
instance, Smith and Darlington (1996, p.14) wrote:
Realism argues that we perceive the world as it really is, that cogniion is a relaion
between subject (the perceiver) and object (the perceived), that the existence of the
object does not depend upon the subject perceiving it.
This suggests that reality exists out there and that the researcher’s responsibility is to
access and assess this reality by means of “objecive” data collecion techniques. It
also suggests that thoughts of people expressed through language adequate represent
the reality. This is largely the posiivist ontological posiion. However, criical realists
have criicized this form of realism as naïve as it fails to appreciate the diferences
among empirical, actual, and real world (Sayer, 1993; Lawson & Staeheli, 1991; Bergene, 2007; Prat,
2009). The empirical world is what we observed, actual world consists of the events
that form the basis of our observaion and the real world consists of the structures
and mechanisms that produce the events (Bergene, 2007). What the posiivist does is to
equate empirical world of data (of language) to the real world of mechanism. The
assumpion that such an independent reality exists results in the belief in a universal
truth equally exists, a belief that has been challenged by criical realists (Lawson & Staeheli,
1991) and postmodernists (Sayer, 1993).
Related to this is the search of empirical regularity that characterizes the posiivist
philosophy. Owing to the fact that posiivist philosophy subscribes to realism or
naïve realism (Sayer, 1993; Lawson & Staeheli, 1991), the empirical regularity observed are
but staisical arifacts and not a representaion of the real world of mechanism. This
is to say that any kind of relaionship can be observed in a given data set but may
make less meaning in pracical terms. Again, criical realists ascribe causal powers to
human reasons and social structures (Yeung, 1997); thus, context is important in social
science research. This marks another point of departure from posiivism. Indeed, the
structures and mechanisms that lie deep underneath the empirical world are “disinct
from the paterns of events they generate, and, in turn, our experience of the events.
In other words, mechanisms do not act actualisically, that is, they do not result in the
same actual events or outcomes, but transfactually, meaning that they are always in
play regardless of the outcome” (Bergene, 2007, p. 13).
Prat (2009, p.3) reemphasizes the point that there is the need for social science
researchers to recognize “the noion, and degree, of ontological depth: ontology being
the nature of things, and ontological depth being the asserion that there is more
5. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 245
to things than is immediately apparent in observaion”. Thus, the simple presence
of structure and mechanism does not necessarily mean that they would produce an
acion in the same way across ime and space. Prat (2009) further argues that because
the mere presence of mechanisms does not generate acion, context (or space and
ime) becomes important in social science research. Despite this law, the naïve
realist philosophy underlies the quanitaive approaches to research that have been
dominant over decades.
On the other hand, idealism argues that our percepion may not relect accurately the
world and that the nature of the perceiver may afect the object of percepion; as a
result,“wecanneverbeabsolutelysurethatourpercepionsoftheworldareaccurate”
(Smith & Darlington, 1996, p.14). This posiion acknowledges that percepion of the world is
constrained by who we are and even the context within which such percepion takes
place. This seems to agree with the criical realist ontological posiion that the world
or reality can be analyzed at three diferent levels of empirical (data or observaion),
actual (events) and real (mechanisms underlying the events) worlds (Lawson & Staeheli,
1991). Indeed, criical realist ontology “implies that reality exists relaively or absolutely
independently of human consciousness of it” (Bergene, 2007, p. 11). This suggests that data
collected during research cannot adequately and accurately relect reality and that
universal truth cannot be derived based on empirical world.
This philosophical posiion ies in with the interpreivist approach of hermeneuics
as opposed to posiivism. In terms of methodological choices, this interpretaive
philosophy underpins the general approach of qualitaive research as the focus
is on understanding as opposed to explanaions (ideniicaion of cause and efect
relaionships). However, researchers are cauioned about limits to such interpretaions
as it over-interpretaion has the potenial to result in what Teo (2008, 2010) terms as
epistemological violence. This term is coined not to refer the misuse of research in
general but to a hermeneuic process (interpretaive speculaions of data) that has
negaive consequences for the ‘Other’ (Teo, 2008, p.57). This is to say that researchers and
policy makers ought not to over-interpret the indings of the study as that might lead
to carrying out the impossible exercise of represening or describing the mechanisms
givingrisetoeventsobserved(realworld)basedontheempiricalregulariies(empirical
world). Such an enterprise may lead to epistemological violence.
Epistemological Position
As stated earlier, epistemology focuses on what consitutes valid knowledge and how
we can obtain such knowledge (West & Turner, 2000; Oppong, 2013). Similarly, Toohey (1952/2007)
describes it as relaing to human knowledge and its sources. There are two principal
opposing epistemological posiions, namely: posiivism and anitposiivist tradiion
of interpreivism or construcivism (Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2008; Mack, 2010). The posiivist
6. 246 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
philosophy holds that knowledge is objecive (exists independent of the subject)
and value-free and is obtained through the applicaion of the scieniic method. It
aims at describing, predicing, controlling and explaining a phenomenon whiles its
overarching objecive is the producion of universal laws or generalizable indings
(Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2008; Mack, 2010). Posiivism is also characterized by hypotheico-
deducive approach of hypothesis tesing, experimentaion, and staisical analysis.
However, as has been pointed out earlier, posiivism is not without its limitaions. The
generalizable indings relect naïve reality (Lawson & Staeheli, 1991). It is also challenged
for being value-neutral as it claims. Teo (2008, 2010) has demonstrated that scieniic
psychology has not weaned itself completely of speculaion as discussion of indings
consitutes interpretaive speculaions. By this Teo (2008, 2010) showed that even within
the posiivist tradiion, there is hermeneuics in the process of interpreing results of
staisical analysis. Indeed, it is during the interpretaive speculaion that values of the
researcher are introduced into the research process. However, such interpretaions
are not viewed as the researcher’s interpretaions but assume epistemological status
as knowledge in the same way as the data that gave rise to such interpretaions.
It can be inimated that social science research that has been informed by posiivist
philosophy can best be described as posiivist-hermeneuic. This is to say that it is not
possible to carry out any social science research project and avoid interpretaions.
Thus, it is reasonable to educate young scholars outside the exising epistemic centres
to embrace informed interpretaions as part of their research. This also quesions
the existence of any universal, objecive truth as the truth is interpretaions of other
social science researchers from their privileged posiions of their ethno-philosophies
or world-views. In other words, diferent truths exist according to who interpret the
results of any social science research.
On the other hand, the interpreivist philosophy holds that reality can never be
objecively observed from the outside; as a result, it must be observed from inside
through the direct experience of the people. It also posits that no universal laws can be
established in the study of human behaviour or social sciences though it is possible in
the natural sciences uniform (Mack, 2010). Thus, the researcher’s role is to “understand,
explain, and demysify social reality through the eyes of diferent paricipants” (Cohen,
Manion, & Morrison, 2007, p.19). Hermeneuics and phenomenology represents diferent
strands of interpreivism (Mack, 2010).
One limitaion of interpreivism is that “it abandons the scieniic procedures of
veriicaion and therefore results cannot be generalized to other situaions” (Mack,
2010, p.8). Yet, the search for generalizaion or universal truth in the form of empirical
regulariies has been shown to be fuile by criical realists (Bergene, 2007; Prat, 2009). For
instance, psychological studies, which over the years have been informed by the
7. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 247
posiivist philosophy, have been shown to be inaccurate descripion of behaviours
in all contexts. This has given rise to cross-cultural psychological research which has
coninually shown that many psychological principles and concepts are not culturally
universal (Matsumoto & Juang, 2004). It has also given rise to the emergence of indigenous
psychology movement which ensures that psychological studies embrace and
account for the culture (Oppong, Oppong Asante & Kumako, 2013; Oppong, under review). Similarly,
interpreivist-oriented social science research tends to inform and improve pracice
(Padget, 2004).
Epistemologically, the criical realists also prescribe the use of extensive and intensive
methods.
Prat (2009) argues that this epistemological prescripion was based on Sayer’s (1984)
statement that argues for the combinaion of intensive and extensive methods.
According to Prat (2009, p. 10), extensive methods are “usually glossed as sample data
collecions of whole populaions: this shows generalized outcomes. Intensive methods,
using ine-grained qualitaive approaches, are usually advocated for examining the
causal processes. The argument was that intensive and extensive approaches should
be used to complement one another”. Thus, the epistemological prescripion from
criical realism is a mixed method in which census studies rather than sample surveys
consitute the extensive method and a qualitaive component that invesigates
the underlying causal process. Thus, in pracical terms a criical realist-informed
epistemological advice will be:
- collect data from representaive sample and apply staisical techniques that
enable you to generate the populaion parameters from the sample esimates
and
- use grounded theory methodology to uncover the causal process of the empirical
regulariies observed in the quanitaive phase.
This leaves out the interpretaive speculaion that leads to epistemological violence
(see Teo, 2008, 2010) The grounded theory approach has been described as a “qualitaive
research design in which the inquirer generates a general explanaion (theory) of
a process, an acion, or an interacion shaped by the views of a large number of
paricipants” (Creswell, 2013, p. 83).
Again, as alternaive bodies of knowledge are sought by scholars in non-western
socieies to support naion-building, qualitaive inquiries can facilitate the producion
of context-relevant or context-speciic knowledge. This becomes very important
as exising knowledge have failed to provide policy-makers and scholars from non-
western socieies context relevant knowledge (Oppong, 2013a). This is to say that non-
western scholars should become more concerned with uncovering truths that are
relevant to their context rather a blind search for empirical regulariies towards a
8. 248 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
non-exising universal truth. Non-western social science researchers also stand to
gain from following the derived epistemological prescripions of mixed methods with
representaive sample studies with inferenial staisics and grounded theory design
with a focus on uncovering the underlying causal process observed through the
quanitaive study. Thus, non-western scholars should develop competences in the
use of qualitaive research methods to support the eforts of developing endogenous
theories or model for improvement of the livelihood of the members of the socieies.
Axiological Position
Axiology focuses on the place of values in the research process (West & Turner, 2000). There
diferent posiions associated with axiology:
- science must be value-free and
- it is not possible to eliminate values form any part of science, and
- values are not only inevitable but desirable aspects of the research process.
The posiion that science must be value-free is associated with the posiivist
philosophy (Breen & Darlaston-Jones, 2008; Mack, 2010; West & Turner, 2000). This is because the
posiivist philosophy which dominates social science claims to be objecive and as a
result, its praciioners ought to not allow their values inluence the research process.
Notwithstanding, there are other researchers who hold the posiion that it is not
possible to enirely eliminate values from the research process (West & Turner, 2000). They
argue that “some values are so embedded in researchers’ culture that researchers are
unconscious that they hold them” (West & Turner, 2000, p.49). However, the third posiion
which holds that values are not only inevitable but desirable aspects of the research
process further compounds the debate by ofering three diferent posiions (West &
Turner, 2000). These are:
- Avoid values that inluence veriicaion
- Recognize how values inluence the enire research process
- Advocate that values should be closely intertwined with the research process
The axiological posiion that ought to be adopted in social inquiry is that values have
always inluenced social science research; as a result, researchers should admit and
deliberately include their cultural orientaion in the research process. This is because
Teo (2008, 2010) has demonstrated that speculaion was and is sill part of scieniic
psychological research and this manifests itself in interpretaive speculaion or
discussion of results obtained from the analyses of quanitaive data.
Again, it ought to be held in the social inquiry process that social science has
imperialisic tendencies (Ake, 2012; Teo & Febbraro, 2003; Teo, 2008, 2010) and that current
social science paradigms are Anglo-Saxon, Chrisian-centric, patriarchal, capitalist,
9. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 249
hetero-normaive and racially hierarchized (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013; Oppong, 2012). Indeed, Teo
and Febbraro (2003, p.676) wrote:
Psychologists usually, quasi-naturally, perceive psychological phenomena based on
how they have experienced them and how they have learned to perceive them in their
paricular cultural context, which includes their academic insituions. In this sense,
epistemological ethnocentrism is an a priori principle before any empirical research is
conducted (and ‘empirical research’ itself assumes a paricular cultural perspecive).
Teo (2010, p.298) made similar comments in respect of the empirical sciences as
perpetuaing what he describes as epistemological violence (EV); it arises whenever
“theoreical interpretaions regarding empirical results implicitly or explicitly construct
the Other as inferior or problemaic, despite the fact that alternaive interpretaions,
equally viable based on the data, are available”. He further argues that EV is a pracice
that is executed in empirical aricles empirical social sciences. Indeed, Teo (2011, p.195)
has argued that posiivist theory (that applied logic and mathemaics) is “ideological
in hiding the social funcion of science, the social formaion of facts, and the historical
character of research objects”.
As a result, there is an urgent need to decolonize social science (Ndhlovu, 2013; Ndlovu-
Gatsheni, 2013); it is against this background that such a decolonial epistemic perspecive
ought to be adopted in the social inquiry process by non-western scholars. Indeed,
Ndhlovu (2013) argues that African scholars should not be oblivious to the invisible
hierarchiesoflinguisicandracialarrangementsthatunderpintheglobaldesignswithin
which knowledge producion and disseminaion take place. Thus, it is fuile to atempt
to project value-free research indings. The decolonial epistemic perspecive is criical
of mainstream or western social science. Consequently, it rightly assumes that though
the process of colonialism (in all its forms) has ended, there remains a legacy of an
unbalanced power “that produces, uses and legiimizes diferences between socieies
and forms of knowledge” that operates to the present day (Ndhlovu, 2013, p.16). It has
been suggested that intervenions at indigenizing knowledge will involve adoping a
problem-centred approach to research and using oral literature (folktales, proverbs,
and ethnic cosmologies) as frame of reference (Mate-Kole, 2013; Oppong, 2013a, 2013b; Oppong &
Oppong, 2012): As a result, African folk and philosophical psychologies should be adopted
as part of the framework for understanding and guiding social science research.
Besides, the discussion that the researcher should not allow his or her values to
inluence the research process can be shown to be the result of the naïve realism of
the posiivist philosophy. Failure of the posiivist philosophy to recognize that empirical
regularity does not tell us anything about the mechanisms that may be giving rise
to such observaion and failure to appreciate the existence of degrees of ontology
produces such axiological posiion. This is to say that because posiivist philosophy
10. 250 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
has no appreciaion for degree of ontological depth (Prat, 2009) and equates what is
observed to what reality is (Bergene, 2007), there is also the possibility that posiivists
would also hold the belief that the observed equals the underlying mechanisms. Thus,
there is a high tendency for posiivists to also believe that a given empirical regularity
observed would hold regardless of the context. This has led to a situaion where
many of the concepts in social science disciplines built on the posiivist philosophy
have been shown to lack ecological validity – degree of applicability of research
indings to people and seings other those in a given research. This suggests that any
contemporary social science research that fails to take in account the cultural milieu of
the research paricipants and seings and temporality sill operates under the illusion
of the posiivist’s naïve realism.
An illustraion will suice. Based on the thesis of communalism presented by Gyekye
(2003), Nukunya (2003) and Assimeng (2007), the author sought to formulate a more
culture-relevant understanding of Ghanaian managers’ willingness to engage in
corporate social responsibility (see Figure 2). Gyekye’s (2003) argues that communalism
inds its greatest expression within the family context. It is expected that managers
are more likely to make CSR decision if it is likely to impact their immediate family
members than when it will afect an enire community.
Family
Neighbourhood
Communiies
Non-locaion-based
Communiies
Society
Figure 2: Ecological Zones of Relevance for Decision-Making and Acions2
Indeed, this axiological posiion is consistent with the eforts to indigenize psychology
(Mate-Kole, 2013; Oppong, 2013a, 2013b; Oppong, Oppong, & Steve, 2013; Oppong & Oppong, 2012; Oppong,
Under Review). Thus, this axiological posiion enables the researcher to develop and test
hypotheses and models that relect the understanding of behaviour within the local
frame of reference. As a result, it increases the ecological validity of results of social
science research in non-western socieies.
2
Source: Author’s Own Construct
11. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 251
Alternative Philosophical Positions
So what alternaives exist for the non-western scholars? Social science researchers
will have to examine their own ontology as to whether a reality exists out there for
them to uncover. It is important to appreciate that no absolute truths exist that can be
discovered. This is because so-called universal truths happen to be the interpretaions
given to observaions by others (Teo, 2008) and such interpretaions oten misrepresent
the other by way of epistemological violence (Teo, 2010). Thus, the non-western
social science researcher must posiion himself or herself to project his or her on
interpretaions as alternaive to the imported interpretaions of the western scholars.
Thus, there is a need for researchers to become open to social science disciplines that
encourages “plura-versalims” or “muli-versalism” that recognizes relaive truths. This
then compels the non-western scholar to view imported truths from western scholars
as other interpretaions and evaluate them accordingly.
Followingfromthisontologicalposiionof“muliversal”realiies,non-westernscholars
should adopt a posiivist-hermeneuic philosophy and axiological posiion that seeks
to incorporate their endogenous paradigms or ethno-philosophies. This is to say that
scholars outside the Anglo-American epistemic centres should abandon their current
purely posiivist orientaion that seeks to eliminate interpretaions. In response, such
scholars should deliberately adopt and appropriate their cultural world-views in the
conduct of social science research. The purpose is to ensure that the ‘hermeneuic’
element of the posiivist-hermeneuic orientaions derives from the ‘local’ instead of
a non-exising ‘global’ worldview. This cauion derives from the suggesion by Yankah
(2012) that globalizaion means nothing more than the promoion of one local culture
to the world stage and Ake’s (2012) concern that development, in the inal analysis,
reduces to westernizaion. Thus, an axiological posiion that accepts values as part of
research should be adopted for social science research in non-western socieies.
Epistemologically, the adopion of mixed method design is highly recommended.
In this context, the social science researcher would beneit more from the criical
realist prescripions. Thus, the design should combine the tradiional quanitaive
techniques with grounded theory method or any other qualitaive design that enables
researchers to uncover the causal process. However, grounded theory method is
highly recommended here given that, at the current limits of our knowledge, it is the
qualitaive method that enables researchers to generate a theory or an explanaion
about the process (Creswel, 2013).
12. 252 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
Conclusion
This paper sought to criically explore the philosophical underpinnings of the social
science research. In paricular, ontological, epistemological and axiological posiions
oten adopted in social science research were examined. It was pointed out that
the opposiions between realism and idealism on one hand and posiivism and
interpreivism on the other are needless as both posiions have inherent strengths
and shorfalls. However, it was inimated that since values have also been part of
social science research, the axiological posiion that researchers should adopt is one
that deliberately include their cultural orientaion. It is, however, important to note
that overall the interpretaions and applicaions of the theories should be inluenced
by a decolonial epistemic perspecive. Epistemologically, a mixed method design
combining the tradiional quanitaive techniques with grounded theory method is
recommended.
Bibliography
1. Ake, C. (2012). Social Science as Imperialism. In H. Lauer and K. Anyidoho (Eds.),
Reclaiming the Human Sciences and Humaniies through African Perspecives
(pp. 1–30). Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers.
2. Bergene, A. C. (2007). Towards A Criical Realist Comparaive Methodology:
Context-Sensiive Theoreical Comparison. Journal of Criical Realism, 6 (1),
5 – 27.
3. Breen, L., & Darlaston-Jones, D. (2008). Moving beyond the enduring dominance
of posiivism in psychological research: An Australian perspecive. Paper
presented at the 43rd Australian Psychological Society Annual Conference.
4. Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in educaion
(6th ed.). London: Routledge.
5. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitaive Inquiry & Research Design: Choosing among
Five Approaches (3rd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publicaions, Inc.
6. Gyekeye, K. (2003). African Cultural Values: An Introducion. Accra, Ghana:
Sankofa Publishing Company.
7. Lawson, V.A. and Staeheli, L.A(1991). On criical realism, human geography and
arcane sects! The Professional Geographer, 43(2), 231-233
8. Mack, L. (2010). The Philosophical Underpinnings of Educaional Research.
Polyglossia, 19, 5 – 11.
9. Mate-Kole, C. C. (2013). Psychology in Ghana Revisited. Journal of Black
Psychology, 39 (3) 316 –320.
13. S. OppOng - A Critique Of the philOSOphiCAl underpinningS Of MAinStreAM SOCiAl SCienCe reSeArCh 253
10. Matsumoto, D., & Juang, L. (2004). Culture and Psychology (3rd ed.). Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
11. Ndhlovu, F. (2013). Vehicular Cross-Border Languages, Mulilingualism and
the African Integraion Debate: A Decolonial Epistemic Perspecive. Africanus:
Journal of Development Studies, 43 (2), 13 – 33.
12. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2013). Perhaps Decoloniality is the answer? Criical
Relecions on Development from a Decolonial Epistemic Perspecive.
Africanus: Journal of Development Studies, 43 (2), 1 – 12.
13. Oppong Asante, K. & Oppong, S. (2012). Psychology in Ghana. Journal for
Psychology in Africa. 22(3), 473–478.
14. Oppong, S. (2013a). Indigenizing Knowledge for Development: Epistemological
and Pedagogical Approaches. Africanus: Journal of Development Studies, 4 (2),
34 – 50.
15. Oppong, S. (2013b). Industrial and Organizaional Psychology in Ghana. The
Industrial-Organizaional Psychologist, 50 (3), 79 – 83.
16. Oppong, S. (Under Review). Towards the Development of a Pan-African
Psychology:MakingaCasethroughPsychologicalTesinginGhana.Psychological
Topics.
17. Oppong, S., Oppong Asante, K., & Kumaku, S. K. (2013). History, Development
and Current Status of Psychology in Ghana. In C. S. Akoia and C.C. Mate-Kole
(Eds). Contemporary Psychology: Readings from Ghana (pp. 1 – 17). Accra:
Digibooks Ghana Ltd.
18. Osborn, M. & Smith, J .A. (1998).The personal experience of chronic benign
lower back pain. Briish Journal of Health Psychology, 3, 65–83.
19. Padget, D. K. (2004). The Qualitaive Research Experience. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
20. Prat, A .C.(2009).Criical Realism/Criical Realist Geographies. In R.
Kitchen and N. Thrit, Internaional Encyclopedia of Human Geography, (Vol.
2), (pp. 379-384). Oxford, Elsevier.
21. Sayer, A. (1993). Postmodernist thought in Geography: a realist view. Anipode,
25 (4), 320-344.
22. Smith, J.A. (1996).Beyond the divide between cogniion and discourse: Using
interpretaive phenomenological analysis in health psychology. Psychology
and Health, 11, 261–271.
23. Smith, P. F., & Darlington, C. L. (1996). Epistemological realism in psychology:
Kant or won’t? New Zealand Journal of Psychology, 25 (1), 13 – 20.
14. 254 ACAdeMiCuS - internAtiOnAl SCientifiC JOurnAl
24. Teo, T. (2008). From Speculaion to Epistemological Violence in Psychology: A
Criical-Hermeneuic Reconstrucion. Theory & Psychology, 18 (1) 47–67. DOI:
10.1177/0959354307086922
25. Teo, T. (2010). What is epistemological violence in the empirical social sciences?
Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4/5, 295-303. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-
9004.2010.00265.x
26. Teo, T. (2011). Radical Philosophical Criique and Criical Thinking in Psychology.
Journal of Theoreical and Philosophical Psychology, 31 (3), 193 – 199.
27. Teo, T. (2012). Psychology is sill a problemaic science and the public knows it.
American Psychologist, 67 (12), 807-808. [Comment] doi: 10.1037/a0030084
28. Teo, T., & Febbraro, A. R. (2003). Ethnocentrism as a Form of Intuiion in
Psychology. Theory & Psychology, 13(5): 673–694.
29. Toohey, J. J. (1952/2007). Notes on Epistemology. Georgetown University,
Washington, D.C.
30. Yankah, K. (2012). Globalisaion and the African Scholar. In H. Lauer and K.
Anyidoho (Eds.), Reclaiming the Human Sciences and Humaniies through
African Perspecives (pp.51–64). Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan Publishers.
31. Yeung, H. W-C. (1997). and realist research in human geography: a method
or a philosophy in search of a method? Progress in Human Geography, 21 (1)
51 – 74.