Cancer is an abnormal and uncontrolled division of cells, known as cancer cells that invade and destroy the surrounding tissues.
Generally cancer is defined as uncontrolled proliferation of cells without any differentiation. Cancer cells are different from normal cells in some aspects. They do not remain confined to one part of the body. They penetrate and infiltrate into the adjoining tissues and dislocate their functions. Some of the cancer cells get detached from the main site of origin and travel by blood and lymph to sites distant from the original tumour and form fresh colonies, called metastasis or secondary growth.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.
## To understand how cancer develops and progresses, researchers first need to investigate the biological differences between normal cells and cancer cells. This work focuses on the mechanisms that underlie fundamental processes such as cell growth, the transformation of normal cells to cancer cells, and the spread, or metastasis, of cancer cells.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
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Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
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Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
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R3 Stem Cells and Kidney Repair A New Horizon in Nephrology.pptxR3 Stem Cell
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2. The term ‘neoplasia’ means new growth.
The new growth produced is called
‘neoplasm’ or ‘tumour’.
However, all ‘new growths’ are not
neoplasms.
examples of new growth of tissues and cells:
processes of embryogenesis, regeneration and
repair, hyperplasia and hormonal stimulation.
3. The proliferation and maturation of cells in
normal adults is controlled, Coordinated and
having purpose.
While neoplastic cells lose control and
regulation of replication and form an
abnormal mass of tissue.
4. Neoplasm or Tumour is
“Mass of tissue formed as a result
of abnormal, excessive,
uncoordinated, autonomous and
purposeless proliferation of cells
even after cessation of stimulus for
growth which caused it”
5. The branch of science dealing with the study
of neoplasms or tumours is called oncology.
(oncos=tumour, logos=study).
The word ‘cancer’ means crab
Hippocrates (460-377 BC) coined the term
karkinos for cancer of the breast.
6. 1. Benign: When they are slow-growing
and localised without causing much difficulty
to the host.
2. Malignant: When they proliferate rapidly,
spread throughout the body and may
eventually cause death of the host.
7. All tumours, benign as well as malignant,
have 2 basic components:
1. Parenchyma’ comprised by proliferating
tumour cells.
2. ‘Supportive stroma’ composed of fibrous
connective tissue and blood vessels.
8. 1. Mixed tumours: When two types of tumours
are combined in the same tumour.
2. Teratomas:
3. Blastomas (Embryomas):
4. Hamartoma:
5. Choristoma:
9. Classification of tumours is
based on the histogenesis.
i.e. cell of origin
10. Usually on basis of cell/tissue
of origin Main groups are:
•Epithelial
•Connective tissue
(mesenchymal)
•Lymphoid/haematological
•Mixture of all (teratomas)
11. Nomenclature
Tissue of origin
Epithelial:
Cell of origin Benign Malignant
•Squamous cell Papilloma Sq C carcinoma
•Glandular Adenoma Adenocarcinoma
•Transitional TC Papilloma T C carcinoma
•Basal Cell BC Papilloma B C carcinoma
14. MIXED TUMOURS:
Cell of origin Benign Malignant
. Salivary Pleomorphic - Malignant -
Glands adenoma mixed salivary -
tumour
TUMOURS OF MORE THAN ONE GERM CELL
LAYER:
.Totipotent cells Mature Immature
in gonads or teratoma teratoma
in embryonal rests
15. I. Rate of growth
II. Cancer phenotype and stem cells
III. Clinical and gross features
IV. Microscopic features
V. Local invasion (Direct spread)
VI. Metastasis (Distant spread).
16. Feature Benign Malignant
I. CLINICAL AND GROSS FEATURES:
1. Boundaries Encapsulated Irregular
2. Surrounding compressed Invaded
3. Size Small Larger
4. Secondary less often more often
changes
17. Feature Benign Malignant
II. MICROSCOPIC FEATURES:
1. Pattern : Resembles Poorly-
Resemblance
2. Pleomorphism: Not present Present
3. N:C ratio Normal Increase
4. Anisonucleosis Absent Present
18. Feature Benign Malignant
III. GROWTH RATE: Slow Rapid
IV. LOCAL INVASION:
Benign: Often compresses the surrounding
tissues without invading or infiltrating them
Malignant: Usually infiltrates and invades the
adjacent tissues.
19. Feature Benign Malignant
V. METASTASIS: Absent Present
VI. PROGNOSIS:
Benign: Local complications.
Malignant: Death by local and metastatic
complications.
21. Men Women Children
1. Lung Breast Acute leukaemia
(oral cavity- (cervix in India)
in India)
2. Prostate Lung CNS tumour
3. Colorectal Colorectal Bone sarcoma
4. Urinary Endometrial Endocrine
bladder
5. Lymphoma Lymphoma Soft tissue sarcoma
22. 1. FAMILIAL AND GENETIC FACTORS.
. Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN).
. Neurofibromatosis
. Cancer of the breast: Female relatives of breast
cancer patients have 2 to 6 times higher risk of
developing breast cancer.
.
23. 2. RACIAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS.
i) White Europeans and Americans develop
most commonly malignancies of the lung, breast,
and colon.
ii) Black Africans, on the other hand, have more
commonly cancers of the skin, penis, cervix and
liver.
iii) Japanese have five times higher incidence of
carcinoma of the stomach than the Americans.
24. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS.
i) Cigarette smoking : cancer of the oral cavity,
pharynx, larynx, oesophagus, lungs, pancreas
and urinary bladder.
ii) Alcohol: cancer of oropharynx, larynx,
oesophagus and liver.
iii) Alcohol and tobacco: cancer of the upper
aerodigestive tract.
iv) Paan in a particular place in mouth for a long
time.
25. vii) A large number of industrial and environmental
substances are carcinogenic: like arsenic,
asbestos, benzene, vinyl chloride, naphthylamine
etc.
iii) Certain constituents of diet: Overweight
individuals, deficiency of vitamin A and people
consuming diet rich in animal fats and low in
fibre content.
26. IV Pathogens:
Human papillomavirus (HPV),
EBV or Epstein-Barr virus,
hepatitis viruses B and C,
Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus
(KSHV), Merkel cell polyomavirus,
Schistosoma spp.,
and Helicobacter pylori; other bacteria are
being researched as possible agents.
27. Fatigue
Lump or area of thickening that can be felt under
the skin
Weight changes, including unintended loss or gain
Skin changes, such as yellowing, darkening or
redness of the skin, sores that won't heal, or
changes to existing moles
Changes in bowel or bladder habits
28. Persistent cough or trouble breathing
Difficulty swallowing
Hoarseness
Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating
Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
Persistent, unexplained fevers or night sweats
Unexplained bleeding or bruising
