This document summarizes a study on the geothermal conditions of the Marmara Sea region in northwest Turkey. The researchers collected temperature data from 44 shallow water wells and 9 oil wells up to 2500m deep to determine surface heat flow density. They also measured thermal conductivities of rock samples. Temperature profiles in the shallow wells showed nonlinear increases with depth likely due to water movement. Repeated measurements over a year showed stable temperature distributions. Heat flow density varied regionally from 35 to 115 mW/m2, with a mean of 60 mW/m2. Higher values were found in areas of active extension south of the Marmara Sea. The spatial pattern of thermal springs did not coincide with heat flow patterns, as their appearance
Raji Panicker presents simplified design equations for earth-air heat exchangers (EAHEs) that can be implemented through a spreadsheet. The equations allow calculation of undistributed ground temperature throughout the year, the length of tube required for desired heat transfer effectiveness, and the pressure drop and exit air temperature. The equations make assumptions about constant ground temperature and properties. An example application to Bangalore, India is provided and validated with computational fluid dynamics simulations.
The document provides an overview of the course contents for a Power Plant Module. It includes 4 sections: [1] Fundamentals of Thermodynamics covering basics, phases of water, steam properties, thermodynamic laws and cycles; [2] Power Plant Components and applications of thermodynamics; [3] Power Plant Facilities and configurations; [4] Power Plant Operations. Section 1 further outlines topics such as measurable/quantifiable properties, phases of water, steam tables, thermodynamic processes, and cycles like Carnot and Rankine.
The document discusses psychrometric charts and their use in analyzing air conditioning processes and calculating air properties. It provides an example problem of calculating properties for an air sample with a dry bulb temperature of 40°C and wet bulb temperature of 28°C. It also discusses sensible and latent heating/cooling, mixing of air streams, and includes sample problems calculating psychrometric properties and air conditioning system design values.
This document discusses the calculation of pressure and quantity measurement for ventilation surveys in mines. It covers determining air requirements for mine workings based on factors like diluting gases, heat, and providing breathable air for workers. Methods for calculating flow rates, pressure losses, and leakage are presented for proper ventilation system design. Key aspects addressed include determining pressure gradients, friction losses, emissions from coal faces and blasting, and total air quantity needs for the entire mine network.
The document discusses methods for improving the cooling power of mine air to provide a comfortable working environment for miners. It describes how the kata thermometer is used to measure cooling power and the factors that affect it, such as temperature, humidity, and air velocity. Several methods for enhancing cooling power are outlined, including increasing air quantity, drying the air, refrigeration, regenerative cooling, and circulating devaporized compressed air. Limitations of some approaches are also noted.
Experiments were conducted to calibrate Schmidt-Boelter heat flux gauges in stagnation and shear air flows. A thermal model was developed that predicts the gauge sensitivity will have a nonlinear dependence on the heat transfer coefficient. Experimental calibration systems were built to simultaneously measure gauge response and heat flux. For stagnation flow, measured sensitivities matched the model and were used to estimate the internal thermal resistance of each gauge. For shear flow, the effect of varying gauge surface temperature on the boundary layer was included. Results matched the model with a lower effective heat transfer coefficient. The internal thermal resistance impacted gauges differently in each flow condition.
This document discusses the calculation of the area of an equivalent orifice to represent the resistance of airflow through a mine opening. It defines an equivalent orifice as an opening through which the same amount of air would flow under the same pressure difference as through the actual mine opening. The area of the equivalent orifice is calculated using Bernoulli's equation and the known airflow quantity and pressure difference. The equivalent orifice area provides a simple way to visualize and evaluate the ease of ventilation for a mine.
1) The revised report analyzes the performance of a cooling tower under varying operating conditions, focusing on efficiencies and characteristics at different water flow rates.
2) Improvements were made to the report, including formatting, removing unnecessary explanations, focusing on theory over derivation, explaining the significance of cooling towers, and providing more detailed conclusions.
3) The results show that increasing the water flow rate decreases the cooling tower characteristic and efficiency, in agreement with previous literature and Merkel theory.
Raji Panicker presents simplified design equations for earth-air heat exchangers (EAHEs) that can be implemented through a spreadsheet. The equations allow calculation of undistributed ground temperature throughout the year, the length of tube required for desired heat transfer effectiveness, and the pressure drop and exit air temperature. The equations make assumptions about constant ground temperature and properties. An example application to Bangalore, India is provided and validated with computational fluid dynamics simulations.
The document provides an overview of the course contents for a Power Plant Module. It includes 4 sections: [1] Fundamentals of Thermodynamics covering basics, phases of water, steam properties, thermodynamic laws and cycles; [2] Power Plant Components and applications of thermodynamics; [3] Power Plant Facilities and configurations; [4] Power Plant Operations. Section 1 further outlines topics such as measurable/quantifiable properties, phases of water, steam tables, thermodynamic processes, and cycles like Carnot and Rankine.
The document discusses psychrometric charts and their use in analyzing air conditioning processes and calculating air properties. It provides an example problem of calculating properties for an air sample with a dry bulb temperature of 40°C and wet bulb temperature of 28°C. It also discusses sensible and latent heating/cooling, mixing of air streams, and includes sample problems calculating psychrometric properties and air conditioning system design values.
This document discusses the calculation of pressure and quantity measurement for ventilation surveys in mines. It covers determining air requirements for mine workings based on factors like diluting gases, heat, and providing breathable air for workers. Methods for calculating flow rates, pressure losses, and leakage are presented for proper ventilation system design. Key aspects addressed include determining pressure gradients, friction losses, emissions from coal faces and blasting, and total air quantity needs for the entire mine network.
The document discusses methods for improving the cooling power of mine air to provide a comfortable working environment for miners. It describes how the kata thermometer is used to measure cooling power and the factors that affect it, such as temperature, humidity, and air velocity. Several methods for enhancing cooling power are outlined, including increasing air quantity, drying the air, refrigeration, regenerative cooling, and circulating devaporized compressed air. Limitations of some approaches are also noted.
Experiments were conducted to calibrate Schmidt-Boelter heat flux gauges in stagnation and shear air flows. A thermal model was developed that predicts the gauge sensitivity will have a nonlinear dependence on the heat transfer coefficient. Experimental calibration systems were built to simultaneously measure gauge response and heat flux. For stagnation flow, measured sensitivities matched the model and were used to estimate the internal thermal resistance of each gauge. For shear flow, the effect of varying gauge surface temperature on the boundary layer was included. Results matched the model with a lower effective heat transfer coefficient. The internal thermal resistance impacted gauges differently in each flow condition.
This document discusses the calculation of the area of an equivalent orifice to represent the resistance of airflow through a mine opening. It defines an equivalent orifice as an opening through which the same amount of air would flow under the same pressure difference as through the actual mine opening. The area of the equivalent orifice is calculated using Bernoulli's equation and the known airflow quantity and pressure difference. The equivalent orifice area provides a simple way to visualize and evaluate the ease of ventilation for a mine.
1) The revised report analyzes the performance of a cooling tower under varying operating conditions, focusing on efficiencies and characteristics at different water flow rates.
2) Improvements were made to the report, including formatting, removing unnecessary explanations, focusing on theory over derivation, explaining the significance of cooling towers, and providing more detailed conclusions.
3) The results show that increasing the water flow rate decreases the cooling tower characteristic and efficiency, in agreement with previous literature and Merkel theory.
the final abstract of our major project for the award of the degree of bachel...Sourav Lahiri
Cooling towers are heat rejection devices that allow industrial processes to reuse water by cooling it through evaporation. There are several types of cooling towers based on their design and operating principles. The key types are wet cooling towers, which use direct evaporation to cool water below the ambient air temperature, and closed circuit cooling towers, which protect process water from exposure while still enabling evaporative cooling. Cooling towers have evolved from early designs like spray ponds and platform towers to modern configurations that optimize heat transfer, such as those using fill materials to increase surface area between air and water flows.
Meteorological observations are made for a variety of reasons. They are used for the real-time preparation of weather charts and maps, for weather forecasts and severe weather warnings, for the study of climate, and for local weather-dependent operations. This module highlights all related details.
This document provides an overview of an experiment analyzing the performance of a mechanical draft cooling tower. The experiment varied the water flow rate and fan speed to measure water temperature changes. The Merkel equation was then used to calculate the "tower characteristic" or coefficient of performance. As the water to air flow rate ratio (LG) increased, the tower characteristic and efficiency decreased, matching the Merkel theory. The conclusion is that higher water flow rates decrease the cooling tower's efficiency and characteristic.
This document provides an overview of fundamentals of refrigeration. It begins with definitions and applications of refrigeration systems. It then discusses the reversed Carnot cycle and presents the temperature-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams for the refrigeration cycle. The key components of a vapor-compression refrigeration system are described along with diagrams illustrating the thermodynamic processes. Mathematical analysis equations for determining refrigeration effect, mass of refrigerant, theoretical piston displacement, and theoretical power required are provided. Examples are also given to demonstrate calculations of performance metrics like COP for refrigeration and heat pump applications.
This document provides an overview of psychrometry and the psychrometric chart. It defines key terms like dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, humidity ratio, enthalpy and others. It explains common HVAC processes that can be analyzed using the psychrometric chart, such as sensible cooling/heating, humidification, dehumidification. The document also provides examples of using the psychrometric chart to analyze real HVAC processes and case studies. Mastering the psychrometric chart and properties of moist air is essential for properly designing and troubleshooting HVAC systems.
This document presents a rule-of-thumb design procedure for wet cooling towers that can be used for power plant cycle optimization. It begins with defining the design problem and specifying inlet/outlet water temperatures and ambient wet-bulb temperature. It then provides methods to calculate the outlet air temperature, tower characteristic, loading factor, and other key parameters. These include using the average of inlet/outlet water temperatures to approximate outlet air temperature, graphically integrating the Merkel equation to determine tower characteristic, and using graphs to determine the optimum loading factor based on design conditions. The goal is to provide simplified methods for estimating cooling tower dimensions, performance, costs and other details needed for power plant analysis without requiring detailed iterative design calculations.
The document summarizes the design of a heat rejection system for a power plant consisting of a shell-and-tube condenser and a natural draft cooling tower. Steam enters the condenser at 46°C and exits as saturated liquid at 10kPa. Cooled water from the tower at 31°C enters the condenser and exits at 41°C. The condenser is designed as two parallel counter-flow heat exchangers based on effectiveness calculations. The cooling tower design is based on energy and mass balances to reject heat from the condenser outlet water to the ambient air. The total cost of the heat rejection system is estimated to be 1.04 billion USD.
The document discusses potential sources of heat in mines which must be accounted for in mine ventilation system design. It identifies various internal and external sources of heat including surface air, rock walls, compression in shafts, groundwater, machinery, lighting, human metabolism, oxidation, blasting, and rock movement. It also discusses the physiological effects of heat and humidity on miners, how the human body regulates temperature, and potential heat-related illnesses like heat stroke, heat cramps, and heat exhaustion.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics that will be covered in an applied thermodynamics course. It defines thermodynamics as the science concerned with energy storage and transformations within bodies, and interactions between energy and matter. The document outlines the laws of thermodynamics, temperature scales, pressure, systems, properties of systems, state, path, process, equilibrium, cycles and reversible/irreversible processes.
The document provides an outline and overview of the key concepts related to entropy. It begins by defining entropy as a measure of randomness or disorder and outlines Clausius' inequality and the increase of entropy principle as it relates to the second law of thermodynamics. It then discusses how entropy applies to systems and substances, both closed and open systems, and how entropy changes with phase changes, temperature changes, and other processes. The document provides examples and explanations of concepts like positional disorder, entropy curves, and sources of increased entropy.
Refrigeration and air conditioning - psychrometry and air conditioning load e...NITIN AHER
This document provides an overview of psychrometrics and air conditioning load estimation. It defines key psychrometric concepts such as dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, and introduces the psychrometric chart. It describes basic psychrometric processes including sensible heating and cooling, humidification, and dehumidification. It also discusses human comfort factors, the comfort chart, and an introduction to cooling load estimation.
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and weather forecasting. Early weather observation relied on observing the sky, but instruments like the barometer, hygrometer, and thermometer allowed accurate measurement of atmospheric variables. In 1765 daily measurements began in France, allowing reasonable short-term forecasts. Modern meteorology began after a 1854 storm disaster prompted establishment of a storm warning service in France. A variety of instruments are now used to observe and measure various atmospheric phenomena and conditions.
The elements which comprise the meteorological environment are:
Atmospheric pressure,
Air temperature,
Humidity,
Rainfall,
Direction and speed of wind and
Movement of clouds and character of weather.
The document discusses heat and humidity in mines and their effects on miners. It outlines various sources of heat in mines including surface air, rock walls, groundwater, machinery, lighting, oxidation, blasting, and rock movement. High heat and humidity can cause physiological effects on miners such as heat stroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and mental fatigue. Mine ventilation systems aim to cool and dehumidify air to improve miner health, safety, and work efficiency.
MERKELS METHOD FOR DESIGNING INDUCED DRAFT COOLING TOWERIAEME Publication
In general, cooling towers are used to dissipate process waste heat into the atmosphere. In this paper, induced draft cooling tower has been designed by simplified merkel’s method. The design of cooling tower is based on Merkel’s method. The t ower characteristic is determined by the ratio of range and log-mean-enthalpy difference. Optimization of the operating conditions for cooling tower applications in cooling water is extremely significant in order to get the most energy efficient operating point for these systems. A simple algebraic formula is used to calculate the optimum water-to-air flow rate. Merkel’s method is the most widely accepted theory for cooling tower calculations. It combines equations for heat and water vapor transfer. The objective of this paper is to present the design procedure of counter – flow cooling towers in a simplified manner
This document discusses heating and cooling load calculations for buildings. It covers calculating heating loads by estimating transmission heat losses through walls, infiltration, and ducts. Cooling load calculations are more complex as they consider time-varying conditions like solar radiation. Methods like CLTD and SHGC are used to account for time lags in roofs/walls and solar heat gains through windows. Internal loads from people, lights, and equipment must also be included to determine required cooling capacities. The assumptions behind design cooling loads consider maximum outdoor conditions, full occupancy, and all equipment operating.
The document discusses Mahoney's tables, which are a set of reference tables used to guide climate-appropriate building design. The tables use readily available climate data like temperature, humidity and rainfall to classify a location's climate and indicate appropriate design recommendations. The tables involve entering monthly climate data, comparing it to comfort levels, identifying humid/arid conditions over the year, and looking up schematic and design development recommendations based on the results. The document also discusses using other methods like bioclimatic charts, psychrometric charts and software to analyze a site's climate factors and their effects.
Environmental practicals for mbbs students Part IIdrjagannath
This document discusses various instruments used to measure meteorological elements like temperature, humidity, and wind speed. It describes:
1. Thermometers like mercury, alcohol, maximum, minimum, kata, and globe thermometers which are used to measure air temperature, maximum/minimum temperatures reached, cooling power of air, mean radiant heat.
2. Instruments like the sling and Assmann psychrometers which use wet and dry bulb thermometers to measure relative humidity by comparing the temperature difference between a wet and dry bulb.
3. The kata thermometer procedure which involves suspending wet and dry thermometer bulbs in air to measure cooling power and thermal comfort.
4. Wind an
This document discusses heating and cooling load calculations for buildings. It covers calculating heating loads by estimating transmission heat losses through walls, infiltration, and ductwork. Cooling load calculations are more complex as they consider time-varying outdoor conditions and internal heat gains. Methods for calculating cooling loads include using the Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) method for walls and roofs and considering solar heat gain factors for windows. The assumptions behind design cooling loads and calculating people loads are also outlined.
This experiment studied the effects of cooling load and inlet water temperature on a cooling tower's performance. In experiment 1, cooling load was varied at 0.5 kW, 1 kW, and 1.5 kW while water flow rate and air flow were held constant. Higher cooling loads resulted in larger cooling ranges between inlet and outlet water temperatures. Experiment 2 varied water flow rate from 0.8 LPM to 1.6 LPM at a 1 kW cooling load. Higher water flow rates produced smaller cooling ranges and lower heat loads transferred. The results show that increasing cooling load or decreasing water flow rate improves a cooling tower's heat removal capabilities.
The document describes the SHARE European Earthquake Catalogue (SHEEC) which covers earthquakes from 1000-1899 in Europe. It was compiled using the historical earthquake dataset and background information from the NERIES project, which established a distributed archive of historical earthquake data and methodology for assessing earthquake parameters from macroseismic data points. Earthquake parameters were determined through processing macroseismic data points using updated, regionally calibrated procedures. A strategy focused on maximizing the homogeneity of epicentral location and magnitude across the catalog. The catalog provides location and magnitude uncertainties.
the final abstract of our major project for the award of the degree of bachel...Sourav Lahiri
Cooling towers are heat rejection devices that allow industrial processes to reuse water by cooling it through evaporation. There are several types of cooling towers based on their design and operating principles. The key types are wet cooling towers, which use direct evaporation to cool water below the ambient air temperature, and closed circuit cooling towers, which protect process water from exposure while still enabling evaporative cooling. Cooling towers have evolved from early designs like spray ponds and platform towers to modern configurations that optimize heat transfer, such as those using fill materials to increase surface area between air and water flows.
Meteorological observations are made for a variety of reasons. They are used for the real-time preparation of weather charts and maps, for weather forecasts and severe weather warnings, for the study of climate, and for local weather-dependent operations. This module highlights all related details.
This document provides an overview of an experiment analyzing the performance of a mechanical draft cooling tower. The experiment varied the water flow rate and fan speed to measure water temperature changes. The Merkel equation was then used to calculate the "tower characteristic" or coefficient of performance. As the water to air flow rate ratio (LG) increased, the tower characteristic and efficiency decreased, matching the Merkel theory. The conclusion is that higher water flow rates decrease the cooling tower's efficiency and characteristic.
This document provides an overview of fundamentals of refrigeration. It begins with definitions and applications of refrigeration systems. It then discusses the reversed Carnot cycle and presents the temperature-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams for the refrigeration cycle. The key components of a vapor-compression refrigeration system are described along with diagrams illustrating the thermodynamic processes. Mathematical analysis equations for determining refrigeration effect, mass of refrigerant, theoretical piston displacement, and theoretical power required are provided. Examples are also given to demonstrate calculations of performance metrics like COP for refrigeration and heat pump applications.
This document provides an overview of psychrometry and the psychrometric chart. It defines key terms like dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, humidity ratio, enthalpy and others. It explains common HVAC processes that can be analyzed using the psychrometric chart, such as sensible cooling/heating, humidification, dehumidification. The document also provides examples of using the psychrometric chart to analyze real HVAC processes and case studies. Mastering the psychrometric chart and properties of moist air is essential for properly designing and troubleshooting HVAC systems.
This document presents a rule-of-thumb design procedure for wet cooling towers that can be used for power plant cycle optimization. It begins with defining the design problem and specifying inlet/outlet water temperatures and ambient wet-bulb temperature. It then provides methods to calculate the outlet air temperature, tower characteristic, loading factor, and other key parameters. These include using the average of inlet/outlet water temperatures to approximate outlet air temperature, graphically integrating the Merkel equation to determine tower characteristic, and using graphs to determine the optimum loading factor based on design conditions. The goal is to provide simplified methods for estimating cooling tower dimensions, performance, costs and other details needed for power plant analysis without requiring detailed iterative design calculations.
The document summarizes the design of a heat rejection system for a power plant consisting of a shell-and-tube condenser and a natural draft cooling tower. Steam enters the condenser at 46°C and exits as saturated liquid at 10kPa. Cooled water from the tower at 31°C enters the condenser and exits at 41°C. The condenser is designed as two parallel counter-flow heat exchangers based on effectiveness calculations. The cooling tower design is based on energy and mass balances to reject heat from the condenser outlet water to the ambient air. The total cost of the heat rejection system is estimated to be 1.04 billion USD.
The document discusses potential sources of heat in mines which must be accounted for in mine ventilation system design. It identifies various internal and external sources of heat including surface air, rock walls, compression in shafts, groundwater, machinery, lighting, human metabolism, oxidation, blasting, and rock movement. It also discusses the physiological effects of heat and humidity on miners, how the human body regulates temperature, and potential heat-related illnesses like heat stroke, heat cramps, and heat exhaustion.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics that will be covered in an applied thermodynamics course. It defines thermodynamics as the science concerned with energy storage and transformations within bodies, and interactions between energy and matter. The document outlines the laws of thermodynamics, temperature scales, pressure, systems, properties of systems, state, path, process, equilibrium, cycles and reversible/irreversible processes.
The document provides an outline and overview of the key concepts related to entropy. It begins by defining entropy as a measure of randomness or disorder and outlines Clausius' inequality and the increase of entropy principle as it relates to the second law of thermodynamics. It then discusses how entropy applies to systems and substances, both closed and open systems, and how entropy changes with phase changes, temperature changes, and other processes. The document provides examples and explanations of concepts like positional disorder, entropy curves, and sources of increased entropy.
Refrigeration and air conditioning - psychrometry and air conditioning load e...NITIN AHER
This document provides an overview of psychrometrics and air conditioning load estimation. It defines key psychrometric concepts such as dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, humidity ratio, enthalpy, and introduces the psychrometric chart. It describes basic psychrometric processes including sensible heating and cooling, humidification, and dehumidification. It also discusses human comfort factors, the comfort chart, and an introduction to cooling load estimation.
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and weather forecasting. Early weather observation relied on observing the sky, but instruments like the barometer, hygrometer, and thermometer allowed accurate measurement of atmospheric variables. In 1765 daily measurements began in France, allowing reasonable short-term forecasts. Modern meteorology began after a 1854 storm disaster prompted establishment of a storm warning service in France. A variety of instruments are now used to observe and measure various atmospheric phenomena and conditions.
The elements which comprise the meteorological environment are:
Atmospheric pressure,
Air temperature,
Humidity,
Rainfall,
Direction and speed of wind and
Movement of clouds and character of weather.
The document discusses heat and humidity in mines and their effects on miners. It outlines various sources of heat in mines including surface air, rock walls, groundwater, machinery, lighting, oxidation, blasting, and rock movement. High heat and humidity can cause physiological effects on miners such as heat stroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and mental fatigue. Mine ventilation systems aim to cool and dehumidify air to improve miner health, safety, and work efficiency.
MERKELS METHOD FOR DESIGNING INDUCED DRAFT COOLING TOWERIAEME Publication
In general, cooling towers are used to dissipate process waste heat into the atmosphere. In this paper, induced draft cooling tower has been designed by simplified merkel’s method. The design of cooling tower is based on Merkel’s method. The t ower characteristic is determined by the ratio of range and log-mean-enthalpy difference. Optimization of the operating conditions for cooling tower applications in cooling water is extremely significant in order to get the most energy efficient operating point for these systems. A simple algebraic formula is used to calculate the optimum water-to-air flow rate. Merkel’s method is the most widely accepted theory for cooling tower calculations. It combines equations for heat and water vapor transfer. The objective of this paper is to present the design procedure of counter – flow cooling towers in a simplified manner
This document discusses heating and cooling load calculations for buildings. It covers calculating heating loads by estimating transmission heat losses through walls, infiltration, and ducts. Cooling load calculations are more complex as they consider time-varying conditions like solar radiation. Methods like CLTD and SHGC are used to account for time lags in roofs/walls and solar heat gains through windows. Internal loads from people, lights, and equipment must also be included to determine required cooling capacities. The assumptions behind design cooling loads consider maximum outdoor conditions, full occupancy, and all equipment operating.
The document discusses Mahoney's tables, which are a set of reference tables used to guide climate-appropriate building design. The tables use readily available climate data like temperature, humidity and rainfall to classify a location's climate and indicate appropriate design recommendations. The tables involve entering monthly climate data, comparing it to comfort levels, identifying humid/arid conditions over the year, and looking up schematic and design development recommendations based on the results. The document also discusses using other methods like bioclimatic charts, psychrometric charts and software to analyze a site's climate factors and their effects.
Environmental practicals for mbbs students Part IIdrjagannath
This document discusses various instruments used to measure meteorological elements like temperature, humidity, and wind speed. It describes:
1. Thermometers like mercury, alcohol, maximum, minimum, kata, and globe thermometers which are used to measure air temperature, maximum/minimum temperatures reached, cooling power of air, mean radiant heat.
2. Instruments like the sling and Assmann psychrometers which use wet and dry bulb thermometers to measure relative humidity by comparing the temperature difference between a wet and dry bulb.
3. The kata thermometer procedure which involves suspending wet and dry thermometer bulbs in air to measure cooling power and thermal comfort.
4. Wind an
This document discusses heating and cooling load calculations for buildings. It covers calculating heating loads by estimating transmission heat losses through walls, infiltration, and ductwork. Cooling load calculations are more complex as they consider time-varying outdoor conditions and internal heat gains. Methods for calculating cooling loads include using the Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) method for walls and roofs and considering solar heat gain factors for windows. The assumptions behind design cooling loads and calculating people loads are also outlined.
This experiment studied the effects of cooling load and inlet water temperature on a cooling tower's performance. In experiment 1, cooling load was varied at 0.5 kW, 1 kW, and 1.5 kW while water flow rate and air flow were held constant. Higher cooling loads resulted in larger cooling ranges between inlet and outlet water temperatures. Experiment 2 varied water flow rate from 0.8 LPM to 1.6 LPM at a 1 kW cooling load. Higher water flow rates produced smaller cooling ranges and lower heat loads transferred. The results show that increasing cooling load or decreasing water flow rate improves a cooling tower's heat removal capabilities.
The document describes the SHARE European Earthquake Catalogue (SHEEC) which covers earthquakes from 1000-1899 in Europe. It was compiled using the historical earthquake dataset and background information from the NERIES project, which established a distributed archive of historical earthquake data and methodology for assessing earthquake parameters from macroseismic data points. Earthquake parameters were determined through processing macroseismic data points using updated, regionally calibrated procedures. A strategy focused on maximizing the homogeneity of epicentral location and magnitude across the catalog. The catalog provides location and magnitude uncertainties.
This document proposes a modification to the Gutenberg-Richter law to describe the cumulative distribution of earthquake magnitudes using concepts from nonextensive statistical mechanics. It introduces a new "q-stretched exponential" form for the modified Gutenberg-Richter law and fits this form to seismic data from California and Iran. The empirical data fits extremely well with the proposed modification over the entire range of magnitudes. Nonextensive statistical mechanics is applied to derive a q-exponential distribution for the surface size of fragments produced during earthquakes. A new hypothetical relationship is also proposed between the surface size of fragments and the released energy.
This document discusses the distribution of slip along earthquake faults based on analyses of five major earthquake slip models. It finds that the distribution follows a piecewise Gutenberg-Richter law, with different b-values above and below a transition point. For smaller slips, b is near 1, while for larger slips b is greater than 1. It analyzes the slip distributions using rank-ordering analysis to overcome data limitations. This verifies the existence of power laws with different scaling constants in the two slip regimes identified.
This geomechanical model investigates the 3D kinematics of the fault system beneath the Marmara Sea region in northwest Turkey. The model incorporates the recently imaged fault structures below the Marmara Sea as frictional surfaces. It is subjected to gravity and kinematic boundary conditions derived from observations. The model results agree with GPS velocities, geological fault slip rates, palaeomagnetic measurements and patterns of subsidence and uplift. The Main Marmara Fault can be interpreted as a through-going strike-slip fault, but there is also significant dip-slip motion locally. Sensitivity analysis shows rock properties and initial stress have minor influence on kinematics, whereas the 3D fault structure is the key control. The modeled slip rate of the
The document discusses well logging techniques. It begins by defining a well log as a continuous record of measurements made in a borehole that respond to variations in physical rock properties. It then discusses the concept of borehole invasion, where drilling mud contaminates the formation near the borehole. Key logging tools are described, including gamma ray, spontaneous potential, resistivity, density, neutron, and sonic logs. Porosity calculations using various logs are also presented. In particular, it focuses on how well logs can be used to determine lithology, porosity, fluid content and hydrocarbon saturation in geological formations.
The document provides information about well logging techniques. It discusses how the borehole and surrounding rock can be invaded by drilling mud, affecting measurements. It describes the invaded zone and different resistivity measurements that can be taken. It then discusses various well logging tools - gamma ray, spontaneous potential, resistivity, density, neutron, and sonic logs - and how they are used to evaluate properties like lithology, porosity, fluid content, and hydrocarbon saturation.
The document discusses digital logic design and covers the following topics in 3 sentences:
It introduces basic concepts in digital logic like logic gates, truth tables, and complete gate sets. It then discusses combinational logic circuits like multiplexers, demultiplexers, decoders, comparators, and adders. Finally, it discusses sequential circuits and arithmetic logic units that can perform arithmetic and logical operations on binary numbers.
The document discusses refraction seismology field work. It covers types of seismometers used, how a refraction survey is set up with geophone spreads and shot locations, and controlled seismic sources like impact and vibrating sources. An example refraction profile from Santa Teresa Hills is shown and discussed, including determining intercept times and velocities to develop a geophysical model of subsurface layers. Students are assigned a field study report on their refraction data due next month.
The document discusses concepts in gravity and isostasy from an introduction to geophysics course. It covers topics like gravity units, sensitivity to mass changes, density of geological materials, examples of gravity maps, isostatic equilibrium, bouguer anomalies over land and sea, and an example from Arabia. It also provides homework instructions to make an online gravity map and define terms in an equation related to gravity concepts.
This document provides an overview of a well logging course, including the course objectives, structure, and assessment criteria. The course aims to provide both theoretical and practical training in well logging through lectures, class projects, and a final exam. Key topics that will be covered include gamma ray logging, potential logging, acoustic logging, density logging, and mud logging. Students will be expected to demonstrate understanding of well logging tools, principles, and applications by the end of the course. Their performance will be evaluated based on participation, projects, and a closed-book final exam.
The document discusses gravity methods in geophysics. It provides examples of gravity measurements and calculations, including Bouguer corrections on land and sea. It also discusses different units used to measure gravitational acceleration and explains the use of milligals for small measurements like on Phobos.
This document discusses seismic wave travel time models for both flat and curved earth models. It explains that for a flat earth model with distinct layers, seismic rays emerge at steeper angles with increasing depth, changing the slope of first arrivals. A model with numerous thin layers is approximated as a continuous velocity function of depth. For a curved earth model, rays bend away from vertical, leading to steeper emergence angles and more curved travel time graphs, indicating higher apparent velocities than for a constant velocity flat earth model.
The document discusses isostasy and models of crustal compensation. It describes Airy and Pratt models of isostatic equilibrium, where topography is supported by either lateral density variations within the crust (Pratt model) or variations in crustal thickness (Airy model). Continental collision leads to the highest elevations on Earth because the thick, buoyant continental crust uplifts vast areas when plates converge.
Isostasy refers to the equilibrium between blocks of Earth's crust and the underlying mantle. Lighter crustal blocks "float" higher, while heavier blocks sink deeper into the mantle. There are three models of isostasy: the Airy-Heiskanen model where crustal thickness changes with topography; the Pratt-Hayford model where lateral density changes accommodate topography; and the flexural isostasy model where the lithosphere bends under local loads. Deposition and erosion affect isostatic equilibrium as crust rises when loaded and sinks when unloaded, like an iceberg. Plate tectonics and ice sheets also impact isostasy through crustal thickening during collisions and post-gl
This document discusses seismic refraction analysis, which uses the transmission of seismic waves through different subsurface layers to determine layer properties and depths. It explains key concepts like Snell's law, critical refraction angles, and travel time distance curves. The document also lists applications of seismic refraction including determining depths of weathering zones, groundwater tables, basements, Moho discontinuity, and faster subsurface units.
Geothermal energy comes from heat within the Earth that is generated from radioactive decay and other sources. This heat travels through the Earth's layers and can be accessed through hot springs, geysers, and reservoirs located deep underground. Geothermal energy can be harnessed as a renewable energy source and has the advantages of being constantly available and having little environmental impact, though high installation costs and potential depletion limit its widespread use. Exploration methods are used to locate potential geothermal resources by measuring subsurface temperatures, electrical conductivity, seismic activity, and other factors.
Experimental Investigation of Heat Transfer by Electrically Heated Rectangula...IRJET Journal
This document presents an experimental investigation of heat transfer from an electrically heated rectangular surface by natural convection. The experiment measured the temperature distribution of air around a flat aluminum plate heated to temperatures between 347-365K at various angles from vertical. As the plate angle increased, the slope of the dimensionless temperature curve decreased, showing angle affects heat transfer. The Nusselt number also varied with angle. The experimental data agreed with previous work for vertical plates and showed temperature was independent of distance horizontally. The results provide insight into heat transfer behavior from inclined surfaces.
Two boreholes were drilled near a Bulgarian Antarctic research base on Livingston Island to collect core samples for laboratory study of thermal properties. Thermal conductivity and diffusivity measurements were made on cores from the two boreholes, located 187 meters apart, to understand heat transfer in local soils and permafrost. Preliminary results found the highest thermal conductivity in cores from the PAPAGAL borehole and the highest thermal diffusivity in cores from the CALM borehole. Further tests will measure properties under saturated conditions to model the Antarctic climate. The study aims to interpret thermal flux in the region's soils and rocks.
This document summarizes a study that measured physical properties of cores from a 15m borehole in Livingston Island, Antarctica. Thermal conductivity and diffusivity were measured on dry cores and varied between 3.02-3.32 W/mK and 1.42-1.64 x 10-6 m2/s respectively. Porosity was low at 1.1-1.8% and density ranged from 2640-2666 kg/m3. Heat production across the borehole was 1.698 μW/m3. Temperature measurements showed an average annual temperature of -1.76°C with a thermal amplitude of 7.71°C. The cores were composed of sandstone. Physical
This document summarizes a heat-pipe model for early Earth's lithospheric dynamics and heat transport. Numerical simulations show that frequent volcanic eruptions could have advected surface materials downwards, developing a thick cold lithosphere. Declining heat sources over time would lead to an abrupt transition to plate tectonics. Evidence from the geologic record, such as rapid volcanic resurfacing and contractional deformation before 3.2 billion years ago, is consistent with predictions of the heat-pipe model. The model provides a framework for understanding Earth's evolution before the onset of plate tectonics.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed
Arctic climate Change: observed and modelled temperature and sea-ice variabilitySimoneBoccuccia
1) Two pronounced warming events are seen in observed Arctic temperatures in the early 20th century and from 1980 onwards. The early warming was confined to north of 60°N while the recent warming encompasses the whole Earth but is amplified in the Arctic.
2) The spatial patterns of temperature trends during the early 20th century warming and subsequent cooling periods were similar, suggesting natural climate variability, while the recent warming trend has a distinctively different pattern.
3) Modeling studies suggest the early 20th century warming was likely due to natural processes within the climate system, while no models have been able to produce the recent global warming without including anthropogenic forcing from greenhouse gases.
The document summarizes key concepts in heat transfer by conduction. It defines Fourier's law of conduction, thermal conductivity, and provides equations for one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction through a slab and hollow cylinder. It also defines thermal resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient, critical thickness of insulation, fins, fin effectiveness, and fin efficiency. Examples of heat generation and the difference between transient and steady heat transfer are provided. The lumped system analysis method and Biot number are introduced along with their applicability conditions.
This document outlines the content of a heat transfer course, including 8 topics: introduction to heat and mass transfer, 1D and 2D steady state conduction, unsteady state conduction, convection heat transfer, radiation heat transfer, heat exchangers, and boiling and condensation heat transfer. Evaluation of students includes continuous assessment, projects, mid-term and final exams. Attendance of 80% is required to sit for the final exam. Prerequisites include thermodynamics and applied mathematics courses. The document provides references and does not include any other content.
International Journal of Engineering Research and DevelopmentIJERD Editor
Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering,
Information Engineering and Technology,
Mechanical, Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering,
Automation and Mechatronics Engineering,
Material and Chemical Engineering,
Civil and Architecture Engineering,
Biotechnology and Bio Engineering,
Environmental Engineering,
Petroleum and Mining Engineering,
Marine and Agriculture engineering,
Aerospace Engineering.
This document summarizes a numerical study of fluid flow and heat transfer through a reactive coal stockpile. The study used computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to model the stockpile as a porous medium and solve the governing equations. Parameters investigated included wind speed, porosity, permeability, and maximum temperature. Two independent numerical solvers were used and validated against each other. The results showed these parameters affect air flow around the stockpile, maximum internal temperature, and heat removal at the interface with the atmosphere, influencing the coal oxidation process.
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFERFROM SQUARE CYLIND...ijmech
The document numerically investigates natural convection heat transfer from a square cylinder placed horizontally in a square enclosure filled with nanofluids. It presents the following key points:
1) Governing equations for the laminar, steady state, two-dimensional flow of an incompressible nanofluid are developed using the vorticity-stream function formulation.
2) Variables such as thermal conductivity and viscosity are modified to account for the inclusion of nanoparticles based on existing models.
3) The equations are non-dimensionalized and discretized before being solved using the ADI method.
4) Preliminary results show an increase in average Nusselt number with increasing nanoparticle volume fraction over the range
A three-dimensional numerical analysis of laminar natural convection with entropy generation in an open trapezoidal cavity filled with water has been carried out. In this investigation, the inclined wall is maintained at isothermal hot temperature while cold water enters into the cavity from its right open boundary and all other walls are assumed to be perfect thermal insulators. Attention is paid on the effects of buoyancy forces on the flow structure and temperature distribution inside the open enclosure. Rayleigh number is the main parameter which changes from 103 to 105 and Prandtl number is fixed at Pr =6.2. Obtained results have been presented in the form of particles trajectories, iso-surfaces of temperature and those of entropy generated as well as the average Nusselt number. It has been found that the flow structure is sensitive to the value of Rayleigh number and that heat transfer increases with increasing this parameter.
As companies examine their total cost of operations, energy usage and heat recovery deliver cost savings through increased energy utilization and efficiency. Heat exchangers offer companies the opportunity to reuse energy generated for a specific purpose instead of venting that energy to the atmosphere. Shell and tube heat exchangers are in wide use throughout the Food, Dairy, Beverage, Pharmaceutical, Chemicals, Petroleum Refining, and Utility industries. This paper briefly explores three modes of heat transfer and basic designs found in shell and tube heat exchangers. Also included are several case studies from different industries where
Enerquip’s heat exchangers have saved the operators energy and money.
This document summarizes a numerical study of heat transfer characteristics inside a bottom-heated square enclosure. Simulations were conducted for air and Al2O3-water nanofluid inside the enclosure as the conducting medium. Results showed that heat transfer rate, as measured by Nusselt number, increased with increasing hot wall temperature. For air, heat transfer occurred through bulk fluid motion, while for nanofluid it occurred through local interactions. However, nanofluids also exhibited bulk motion at higher temperatures. Isotherm and streamline patterns revealed higher heat transfer and more organized flow for nanofluids compared to air.
The document discusses diurnal heating effects and how thermal properties vary throughout the day. It provides two images of Atlanta taken during the day and before dawn to show differences. Buildings and streets are more distinct during the day due to shadows, while differences decrease at dawn. It also discusses the heat island effect over urban areas. Thermal inertia and other factors like emissivity, reflectance, and atmospheric conditions impact measured surface temperatures throughout the day. Deeper layers converge to a steady temperature unaffected by daily cycles.
This document summarizes a study on the thermal performance of a shell and tube heat exchanger using nanofluids. Finite volume modeling was used to analyze heat transfer and flow characteristics. Various nanofluids including Ag, Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, and TiO2 suspensions in water were tested and compared to pure water. The objectives were to analyze temperature profiles, heat transfer coefficients, pressure drops, and effectiveness. Results showed nanofluids had higher overall temperatures indicating more heat transfer compared to water alone. This study analyzed the potential for nanofluids to enhance heat exchanger performance.
electric injera baking pan efficency analsisAmare Addis
This document presents a finite element model for simulating the heat transfer process during injera baking. The model uses Luikov's model for heat and mass transfer in porous media. The finite element model was developed and validated by comparing results to experimental data. The model can predict the impact of injera baking pan design parameters like thermal conductivity and plate thickness on energy efficiency. Modeling indicates that improving these parameters, such as using higher conductivity clay, could significantly improve energy efficiency. The document provides mathematical descriptions of the heat transfer models used for the baking pan and injera batter during the baking process.
The Effects of Nanofluids on Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Parallel ...AI Publications
A numerical solution on forced convection of Al2O3-water nanofluid for different volume fractions is investigated for laminar flow through a parallel plate with flush mounted discrete heat sources. The model used for nanofluid mixture is a single-phase approach and fluid properties are considered constant with temperature. The finite difference method is used for solutions and four different volume fractions are considered varying from 0% to 4%. A fully developed laminar velocity profile is considered and the parallel plate is assumed as heated with three discrete heat sources flush mounted to the top and bottom plate with the same lengths. Uniform wall temperature boundary condition is taken for discrete heaters. Peclet numbers are in the range of 20-100. For comparison and validity of the solution the results for a classical problem, laminar flow through a parallel plate which is heated at the downstream region with constant temperature, are obtained. Results are presented in terms of bulk temperature, heat flux, and local Nusselt number. Heat transfer is enhanced with the particle volume concentration. For comparison, pure water results are also shown in the figures. At the locations where heat is applied the heat flux values decrease as the volume fraction increase and the bulk temperature values are higher for the higher volume fractions at the heated locations. As the volume fraction increases the local Nusselt number can increase up to 30% than to pure water.
The document summarizes research on the suitability of heat exchangers for use as solar receivers in solar thermal power applications. It discusses two main solar collector technologies - point focusing and line focusing collectors - and the receiver design requirements for each. It then outlines the methodology used, which includes designing and fabricating a shell and helical tube heat exchanger, modeling a porous disc line receiver with CFD, simulating different configurations and working fluids, and determining parameters for maximum efficiency. Literature on existing receiver models is reviewed and key findings are summarized. Experimental work involving a shell and helical tube receiver with nanofluid is described and optimization of parameters is discussed. Results from CFD analysis of the porous disc receiver showing heat transfer and fluid
Gravimetri Dersi için aşağıda ki videoları izleyebilirsiniz.
Link 01: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTyjVaVGx0k
Link 02: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fUkfgI8XaOE
The document discusses gravity anomalies and density variations in different regions based on gravity data. It shows how gravity maps reveal details about crustal thickness, tectonic features like faults and volcanic zones, and plate boundaries. Specific examples discussed include the Tibetan Plateau, Central America subduction zone, an area in Chugoku, Japan, and the state of Florida in the US. Regional gravity data can be used to model density changes associated with plate tectonics, crustal evolution, and volcanic and tectonic activity.
The USF team reviewed a geophysical investigation of the Kar Kar region conducted by WesternGeco in 2011. They found that WesternGeco's magnetotelluric (MT) data and models were of high quality. Both the WesternGeco and USF MT models identified a low resistivity zone at 300m depth that correlates with a water-bearing zone found in Borehole 4. USF performed gravity modeling which identified a north-south trending basin reaching 1500m depth, consistent with mapped faults. A preliminary hydrothermal model suggested observed temperatures could result from deep circulation of meteoric waters in the basin without needing a localized heat source. Additional geophysical data is recommended around the Jermaghbyur hot springs to
This document summarizes a study that used gravity data to delineate underground structure in the Beppu geothermal field in Japan. Analysis of Bouguer anomaly maps revealed high anomalies in the southern and northern parts of the study area that correspond to known geological formations. Edge detection filtering of the gravity data helped identify subsurface faults, including the northern edge of the high southern anomaly corresponding to the Asamigawa Fault. Depth modeling of the gravity basement showed differences between the southern and northern hot spring areas, with steep basement slopes along faults in the south and uplifted basement in the north.
This document summarizes the development of a new ultra-high resolution model of Earth's gravity field called GGMplus. Key points:
- GGMplus combines satellite gravity data from GOCE and GRACE with terrestrial gravity data and topography to achieve unprecedented 200m spatial resolution globally.
- It provides gridded estimates of gravity, horizontal and radial field components, and quasi-geoid heights at over 3 billion points covering 80% of the Earth's land.
- GGMplus reveals new details of small-scale gravity variations and identifies locations of minimum and maximum gravity, suggesting peak-to-peak variations are 40% larger than previous estimates. The model will benefit scientific and engineering applications.
Gravity measurements were taken in a region of China covering the south-north earthquake belt in 1998, 2000, 2002, and 2005. Researchers noticed significant gravity changes in the region surrounding Wenchuan and suggested in 2006 that a major earthquake could occur there in 2007 or 2008. While gravity changes were significant at some locations, more research is needed to determine if they could be considered a precursor. Uncertainties exist from measurement errors, hydrologic effects, and crustal movements. Improved data collection and analysis could enhance using gravity monitoring for earthquake research.
The document provides guidelines for implementing the H/V spectral ratio technique using ambient vibration measurements to evaluate site effects. It recommends procedures for experimental design, data processing, and interpretation. The key recommendations include measuring for sufficient duration depending on expected frequency, using multiple measurement points, avoiding disturbances, and interpreting H/V peaks in context with geological and geophysical data. Reliable H/V peaks are defined as having a clear maximum within expected frequency ranges and uncertainties. The guidelines aim to help apply the technique while accounting for its limitations.
Geopsy yaygın olarak kullanılan profesyonel bir program. Özellikle, profesyonel program deneyimi yeni mezunlarda çok aranan bir özellik. Bir öğrencim çalışmasında kullanmayı planlıyor.
Communicating effectively and consistently with students can help them feel at ease during their learning experience and provide the instructor with a communication trail to track the course's progress. This workshop will take you through constructing an engaging course container to facilitate effective communication.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
3. 78
25°30 '
0.1MW
1.0MW
M. Pfister et al./Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
Istanbul
• Ooo
• • •
• •
70
iii I °- O
J
• • •
0
-%
0.0"
-
Fig. 1. Naturalthermalspringsof the MarmaraSea regionand the neotectonicregime.Circlesare proportionalto the energyoutputof
thermalspringsaccordingto Eq. 1.Neotectonicfaultlinesaccordingto Schindler(1997).
much larger extension, in the range of up to 0.12
ppm/yr.
Furthermore, huge thermal springs occur all over
the described region. Fig. 1 displays the distribution
of hot springs, which are classified by their thermal
energy output. This energy output is calculated using
outflow rate and temperature, the latter reduced by
the mean surface temperature of 16°C (Eq. 1).
E = (Tmeasured- - To)Qcp (1)
where E is thermal energy output (W), To is
mean surface temperature (16°(2, from Pfister, 1995),
T,~u~ is spring temperature (°C), c is heat capacity
of water (J/kg°C), p is water density (kg/m3), and Q
is outflow rate (l/s).
The entire region is covered by thermal springs,
but large hot springs with an energy output of sev-
eral megawatt occur in distinct areas only. Esti-
mates of the total thermal energy output from drill-
holes are about 100 MW (Simsek and Okandan,
1990) and, from natural thermal springs, about 60 to
130 MW (based on Pfister, 1995). Added together,
the possible amount of thermal energy output (230
MW) distributed over the investigation area (85,000
km2) corresponds to a theoretical convective heat
flow component of ca. 2.5 mW/m 2. Therefore, the
geothermal areas of northwestern Anatolia form sig-
nificant anomalies only locally.
The basic question about the thermal boundary
conditions, within the Earth's crust, of this geother-
mal potential has not yet been answered. Preliminary
investigations on terrestrial heat flow density distri-
bution have been documented by Tezcan and Turgay
(1991), Ilkisik (1995) and Tezcan (1995). All stud-
ies rely on estimates of rock thermal conductivity
as well as partly on estimates of the temperature
distribution in the underground. Generally all studies
obtained rather high values in the region south of
the Marmara Sea compared to the global average
continental heat flow density.
4. M. Pfister et al./ Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89 79
The present study aims at characterising the
geothermal situation of this area by detailed heat flow
density mapping and geothermal modelling studies.
For these purposes, temperature profiles in shallow
drillholes (up to 200 m depth range) were measured.
Rock thermal conductivity from local samples were
also obtained. These two parameters permitted the
calculation of terrestrial heat flow density. Advec-
tive/convective heat transfer had to be considered by
means of Peclet-number analysis because of the shal-
low range of depth data. Temperature profiles of oil
wells partly permitted a comparison of deep and shal-
low heat flow densities. Thermal water wells and their
temperature profiles were interpreted by simple phys-
ical models based on vertical water movement over a
certain depth range and basal heat flow density values.
The study described below leads to a consistent
picture of the geothermal map considering all ob-
tained information about terrestrial heat flow density,
which is an indispensable boundary condition for
modelling geothermal processes in the uppermost
part of the Earth's crust.
2. Data acquisition
The search for available and suitable drillholes
was mainly made possible with the help of the
following national organisations with offices in dif-
ferent cities: the DSI (State Hydraulic Works) and
K6y Hizmetleri (Rural Services). A first selection
of unused or abandoned wells (which are especially
suitable due to the absence of disturbing water flow
caused by pumping) had to be checked by personal
field trips. Three field measuring campaigns during
the summers of 1991, 1992 and 1993 led to valu-
able temperature data for 44 shallow water wells.
The temperatures were recorded using two measure-
ment equipments with different resolutions: -4-0.I°C
and +0.02°C, respectively, and with different depth
sample intervals of 4 m and 0.1 m, respectively.
High-resolution temperature logging is described in
detail in Pfister and Rybach (1995, 1996). Nine se-
lected records are shown in Fig. 2, the complete
measurements are presented in Pfister (1995). The
selected data records show representatively the char-
10 16 18 20 22 24
0 0
50
100
150
12 14
1 1
50
100
150
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
temperature [°CI
Fig. 2. Selected temperature profiles (1-9) measured in shallow wells (line: high-resolution temperature logs; dots: low-resolution
temperature logs). Water movement is interpreted as the main cause for non-linear temperature increase with depth. Changes of thermal
conductivity of the underground are considered as secondary effects over these small depth ranges.
5. 80 M. Pfister et al./Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
0
10
20
30
E 40
0
50
60
70
' ' ' ' I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' '
(a)
reducing gradient = 2°C/lOOm
14 15
reduced temperature [°C]
0
;0
(b)
~0
i0
1991
o 1992
reducing gradient: 2°C/lOOm
80 , L , , I , J I ' I
13 16 16.4 16.6 16.8
reduced temperature [°C]
Fig. 3. Repeated measurements of the temperature profile at two different drill sites, Soguksu (a) and Kite (b), both near the city ot'
Bursa. Note the stable conditions over one year (reduced temperature scale).
acter of the temperature profiles for shallow depths.
Water movement is interpreted as the main cause for
non-linear temperature increase with depth. Changes
in thermal conductivity of the underground are con-
sidered as secondary effects over these small depth
ranges. Most of the locations showed constant lithol-
ogy over the whole measurable depth range. Re-
peated measurements at the same drill sites were also
performed (Fig. 3). In spite of the hydraulic influ-
ences, the temperature distributions showed stability
over a time period of at least one year. Stationary
models could therefore be applied.
High-resolution digital temperature logging is
even able to resolve convection cells of the water
within the drillhole. Gretener (1967) as well as Di-
ment and Urban (1983) describe typical relationships
of such cells. Pfister and Rybach (1995) observed
and analysed convection cells in a well in north-
ern Switzerland. According to Diment and Urban
(1983), the cells show the following relation:
R = AG'a (2)
where R is maximal temperature difference within
the convection cell (°C), A is cell aspect ratio
(height/drillhole radius), G' is geothermal gradient
(°C/m), and a is drillhole radius (m).
Fig. 4 shows several temperature logs from the
study area with typical convection cell patterns de-
pending on drillhole diameter and temperature gra-
dient. The cell sizes show greater vertical dimen-
sions at larger well diameters, and larger temperature
ranges at higher geothermal gradients, as described
by Eq. 2.
Furthermore, temperature records from a total of
nine oil wells (data from the Turkish Petroleum
Agency, TPAO Ankara) reaching depths up to 2500
m were obtained. Fig. 5 shows temperature profiles
for five onshore wells digitised with a depth interval
of 25 m from analogue data on paper. These data, as
well as the BHT data of four other offshore wells,
6. M. Pfister et al./Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89 81
Carik Koey,4.8°C/100m,6 '' Carik Koey,4.8°C/100m,8 '' Hacisungur,6.0°C/100m,8 '' Hacisungur,6.0°C/100m, 10''
76
78
8o
"O
82
84[,
14.40
:1oo? l
50 , i . . . .
52"
54
56
58
45 . .55
i . . . . i , • .66 1E68 A
14.00 14.05 14.10
40 . . . .
:[46[ 1
48
14.15 14.20
Mecidiye, l.0°C/100m,6'' Mecidiye, 1.0°C/100m,8 '' Selimiye,9.0°C/100m,6 '' Selimiye,9.0°C/100m,8 ''
621 ° -
4 A--l° -
t~.15 12.20 12.25
red. tcmpcraturc[°C]
461
481
501
52,
54
12.15
o A---4
o
A=I0
. . . . i .
12.20 12.25
red. temperature[°C]
,o 24 . . . . .
~5 95
red. temperature[°C]
• i . . . . i ,
52- ~ ~ AA-~
54
56
58
14.85 14.90
red. temperature[°C]
Fig. 4. Observations of convection cells in drillholes. The eight different graphs show convection cells which depend on the drillhole
radius a and the geothermal gradient G'. The temperature scale of each graph is reduced by the local geothermal gradient (indicated in
the top line). The drillhole site and name are indicated at the top of each figure (cf. Appendix B) and two examples of convection cell
sizes are plotted for each example (ellipses with axes corresponding to heights and temperature amplitudes). These convection cell sizes
are calculated by Eq. 2 for different values of A, 4 and 10. The measurements show a good agreement with the criterion of Diment and
Urban (1983) (see text).
were used to calculate mean geothermal gradients as
listed in Appendix A.
Temperature records from four thermal water
wells (data from the General Directorate of Min-
eral Research and Exploration, MTA Ankara) show
the strong influence of fast-rising water in hot spring
areas (compare Fig. 7). The accuracy of such records
lies in the range of +10°C, because measurements
were taken at the wellhead (mud data).
Rock samples from surface outcrops were col-
lected at the specific drill sites of the shallow wells.
Thermal conductivities of these samples were mea-
sured at ambient temperatures and water-saturated
conditions. Pribnow (1994) describes in detail dif-
ferent measuring methods. For our purposes, the
transient method of a heated line source (Carslaw
and Jaeger, 1959) was applied. This theory is easily
changed into a model of a heated line source over a
half space; the source temperature is compared to the
logarithm of heating time. Thermal conductivity ~. is
calculated according to Eq. 3 at large times t:
Q At
. . . . (3)
2zr AT
where L is thermal conductivity (W m -1 K-l), Q is
heat produced per unit line length and time (Wm -1
s-l), AT is measured temperature difference (K),
and At is time difference (s).
7. 82 M. Pfister et al./Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
0 i , i I i
1000
e~
-8
1500
I ' ' ' ' 1 ' ' '
o Kandamis-1
• Vakiflar-1
2000 v Maltepe-1 ~,
• Corlu-1
Karapuercek-1 •
2500 , , I , ~ ~ ~ I .... I ....
40 60 80 100
temperature[°C]
Fig. 5. Temperaturelogs of fiveoil wellsin Thrace.The logsare
digitisedwitha samplingintervalof 25 m fromanaloguedataon
paper.
An approximation of the heating curve according
to Erbas (1985), based on Blackwell (1954), is used
to calculate the final values of thermal conductivity.
Two equipments were used: a QTM and a TK04. The
sample size was typically ca. 9 cm in diameter with
a minimum thickness of 3 cm. Erbas (1985) gives
penetrating depths of 2 to 3 cm of the heat wave into
the sample size using a TK04.
The different lithologies show a wide range of val-
ues but group reasonably well (Fig. 6). Each dot in
the plot represents a different sample from one spe-
cific outcrop. Usually, up to ten measurements were
performed on each sample. The standard deviations
of the measurements range from +0.02 to +0.4 W
m -I K-j . Thermal conductivities of sandstones vary
strongly due to different salt and clay contents. Lime-
stones appear generally with higher values, granitic
rocks show intermediate values, whereas volcanic
rocks (andesites, ignimhrites and tuffites) yield lower
values.
The data set described above requires careful
analysis and special treatment of the temperature
data. The shallow underground, up to 200 m in
depth, is often dominated by groundwater flow. The
following section summarises the necessary calcula-
tion procedures to extract reliable information about
terrestrial heat flow density, even from severely dis-
turbed temperature logs.
3. Convective/advective heat transport by water
movement
Vertical terrestrial heat flow density is defined
according to Eq. 4, which is based on the physical
model of purely conductive heat transfer:
OT
q~ = -)~-- (4)
0z
where qz is terrestrial heat flow density (mW/m2),)~
is thermal conductivity (W K-1 m-l), and OT/Oz is
temperature gradient (°C/km).
In shallow depth ranges, this model is often vi-
olated: horizontally and vertically moving ground-
water can also easily transport heat. This effect can
be detected by the non-linearity of the measured
temperature profile. Three different cases of moving
groundwater and its influence on the temperature
profile are presented in Pfister and Rybach (1995,
1996): vertical groundwater flow in the environs of
the borehole, vertical water flow in a limited depth
range and vertical water flow within the borehole.
The three conceptual models were described accord-
ing to their mathematical solution. The main goal
of such a treatment is to obtain information about
conductive heat flow density at the deepest point of
the observed depth range.
Convective and/or advective vertical heat trans-
fer is considered here, regardless of whether this
fluid movement is caused by hydraulic gradients
(forced convection, 'advection') or by temperature-
dependent fluid densities leading to buoyancy (free
convection, 'convection').
Generally, the measured temperature profile is
simulated by the analytical solution of the specific
physical model. Then, terrestrial (conductive) heat
flow is determined by different approaches: either
by a linear regression of ln(qz) versus depth (z) in
case of vertical groundwater flow in the environs
9. 84 M. Pfister et aL / Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
200
400~ [~
5 0 0 . . . . I . . . . , . . . . , , , , , , , , Mieasehilas
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 7. Measured (symbols) and modelled (line) temperatures
of the Armutlu thermal water well. The depth of the zone
with vertical water movement is indicated by two parallel lines;
q0: surface heat flow (600 mW/m2); q~: basal heat flow (65
mW/m2).
• Travertine (4m)
Oriel (2m)
Diabase
Micaschists
Calcarcous
selaim
Table 1
Model input parameters for the Armutlu well simulation
Parameter Value
Darcy velocity 0.5 m/yr
Surface heat flow ca. 600 mW/m 2
Heat flow at 500 m depth 65 mW/m 2
Peclet-number - 2.2
Layer thickness with water flow 50 m
Thermal conductivity 2.0 W K-j m-l
Surface temperature 16°C
Depth of layer 150 m
is not elevated (65 mW/m2) below this upflow zone.
Above this zone, very high temperature gradients
of up to 30°C/100 m and therefore high conductive
heat flow density of up to 600 mW/m2 occur. As
a main conclusion it follows that the relatively fast
movement of groundwater in certain depth ranges is
able to transport heat near to the surface and enables
the building up locally of thermal springs where flow
paths to the surface are available.
5. Heat flow density map
A total of 44 shallow wells and their temperature
records were processed for heat flow density calcu-
lation (Appendix B). Constant gradients served for
heat flow density calculation according to Eq. 4 (def-
inition of heat flow density). Convective/advective
effects of the groundwater movement were consid-
ered according to the previously summarised 1D
physical models. Measured temperatures were sim-
ulated using these models over a depth range for
each log individually selected. At the base of such
observed/modelled depth intervals, heat flow density
was determined (listed in Appendix B, q~).
It must be emphasised here that the heat flow
density so determined characterises only near surface
conditions. In the heat flow signal, however, the
influence of integrated geological processes of the
deeper crust, and even the upper mantle of the Earth,
is present.
The data set of shallow heat flow built the base
for mapping by geostatistical methods. The kriging
method described below was used for isoline inter-
polation.
Semivariance analysis (Davis, 1986) describes the
spatial dependence of the heat flow density data
(q~). Values of two points with a distance larger
than a have no statistical relation to each other
(Fig. 8, semivariogram). This value a and the value
are used for kriging interpolation. A spherical model
according to Eq. 5 simulates the semivariogram (line
in Fig. 8).
(3hA (hA) 3)
Yha = cry. 2a 2a3 (5)
where a is span or range (0 geograph, length), or02
is variance (mW2/m4), A is 0.5° geograph, length
(42.5 kin), and h is 1, 2, 3 ...
The 44 heat flow density values (q~) were in-
terpolated using the kriging method with the pa-
rameters a = 150 kin, A = 0.5° (42.5 km) and
a2 = 3557 mW2/m4. The map of Fig. 9 contains
the 44 well locations with the specific heat flow
density values. The isolines delimit four intervals:
35-55 mW/m2, 55-75 mW/m2, 75-95 mW/m2
and 95-115 mW/m2. Analysis of oil wells in the
Thrace region (Appendix A and Fig. 5) reveals sim-
ilar ranges of values for this region. Temperature
gradients based on singular BHT data (Appendix A)
are very uncertain and cannot be used for heat flow
density calculations. The interpretation of thermal
well data (one example in Fig. 7) yields heat flow
density values (q~) which fit well into the regional
field. The histogram of the data from the 44 shal-
10. M. Pfister et al. / Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89 85
40001 42.5 85 [km] 127.5 170 212.5
' ' ' i . . . . i . . . . i . . . . i . . . .
@
3000 spherical model
a = 1.75°, 0~o= 3557 mW2/m4
1000 •
O0 , , , , I , , , , I , , , , I , , , • l
1 2 3 4 5
hA [o east. length]
Fig. 8. Semivariogram for heat flow values from shallow depths. The line shows a spherical model, calculated with the values A = 0.5°
(42.5 km), a = 1.75" (150 km) and variance cr2 = 3557 mW2/m4 (dashed line).
I
47+1..8 57+1~). 33÷1-4 ::~ ~%
33+/-6 Q ......., Q
60+/~ 37.-6
, 56+/-4
30"
0
66+#16
70
Q
45+#12
45+/-10
Q
06 '/ %
"75 ~'
I0 30+1-5
%/(
,%
0
20+/-3
0
72+1-14
• 011wMll id~ wldll
(H~tmW~w) O (HWFk~
Oil wells thermalwells
{BXT- @ (Xwt Fk~
Grad~nt)
~lls
Fig. 9. Compilation of geothermal data of the Marrnara Sea region.
11. 86 M. Pfister et al. / Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
low wells shows a mean value of 60 mW/m 2 and a
variation range of 4-50 mW/m 2 (Fig. 7). The heat
flow density distribution of the Marmara Sea region
cannot be regarded as generally high. Only selected
areas show elevated surface heat flow densities of up
to 100 mW/m 2, such as regions south of the Mar-
mara Sea. The Thrace area (north of the Marmara
Sea), as well as the Istanbul and Bursa regions, are
characterised by normal values of up to 55 mW/m 2.
The near surface conditions provoke a further
thermal signal which has to be considered before
the interpretation of deeper processes. Recently new
thermal data from deep drillholes have become avail-
able, e.g. super deep drillholes in Russia (Kola, Ural)
or in Germany (KTB). Substantial differences be-
tween shallow and deep terrestrial heat flow data led
to reconsidering palaeoclimatic effects on the heat
flow data (IHFC, 1996). Considering these new find-
ings, a palaeoclimatic influence of up to 30% or even
60% in the shallow depth levels of the earth's crust
may be possible.
6. Conclusions
The compilation of geothermal data of the Mar-
mara region leads to the following conclusive reflec-
tions.
The described temperature measurements in shal-
low drillholes do not yield an ideal base for heat flow
calculations. The strong influence of water move-
ment on the temperature profile due to advective
and/or convective heat transport needs to be care-
fully considered in order to extract the undisturbed
heat flow density signal from the data. The determi-
nation of terrestrial heat flow density by data from
shallow depth ranges requires therefore detailed con-
siderations of the physical thermal transport model.
In following this procedure, no contradiction was
found between the shallow and deep heat flow data.
In the northern part of the investigation area, these
shallow values were confirmed by data from oil wells
within depths of up to 2500 m (Fig. 9).
The surface heat flow distribution of the Marmara
Sea region shows values ranging from 35 to !!5
mW/m 2, with a mean value of 60 mW/m 2. Two
different areas can be distinguished in Fig. 9: the part
south of the Marmara Sea with 75 to 95 mW/m 2 and
the other areas in the eastern and northern part of the
investigation area with up to 55 mW/m 2. Two differ-
ent heat flow regimes can be attributed to these areas
with different tectonic characteristics: increased val-
ues in the area south of the Marmara Sea correspond
to the general extensional tectonic regime of this
region (Straub and Kahle, 1994, 1995). Normal heat
flow values occur in the northern and eastern part of
the investigation area (Bursa, Iznik, Izmit and Thrace
regions), where stable or compressional components
appear in the tectonic regime (Crampin and Evans,
1986; Straub and Kahle, 1994, 1995).
On the other hand, the distribution of thermal
springs according to their energy output can not be
related to the terrestrial heat flow density field in the
area of investigation (Figs. 1 and 9). The occurrence
of the springs is much more bound to active tectonic
fault lines. Large thermal springs occur more fre-
quently where translational and extensional tectonics
appear together, within a so-called transtensional
tectonical regime.
These observations were confirmed by simple 1D
model calculations to simulate temperature depth
profiles of selected thermal wells (Fig. 7) in shallow
depth ranges. The lower boundary values (conductive
heat flow density qoo) of the 1D model approaches
fit well with the overall distribution of values de-
termined by the other nearby shallow measurements
(Fig. 9).
Northwestern Anatolia is characterised by normal
to locally elevated terrestrial heat flow density com-
pared to a normal value defined by the world-wide
continental mean value of 65 mW/m 2 (Pollack et
al., 1993). The abundance and distribution of hot
springs, especially the very large ones, and geother-
mal fields in this region can only be explained by
local zones of strongly elevated vertical hydraulic
permeability due to active transtensional faulting
of the crust. The importance, within this context,
of the combination of strike-slip and normal faults
(transtensional regime) will be further clarified and
confirmed by the ongoing interdisciplinary approach
of the Poly-Project Marmara (Schindler and Pfister,
1997).
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the General Directorate,
as well as the local offices, of the state organisations
12. M. Pfister et al. / Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89 87
DSI (State Hydraulic Works) and of K6y Hizmetleri
(Rural Services) in different cities of northwestern
Anatolia for their kind collaboration. For three years
they allowed us free access to drillholes convenient
for our purposes. We also thank the General Direc-
torate of MTA (Mineral Research and Exploration).
Thanks are also due to all our partners working with
us on the Marmaraproject. We are especially grateful
to Prof. R. HOtter,ETH Vice-President for Research,
for his continuing help and support in many aspects
of this Poly-project. Fruitful discussions with Ch.
Clauser (Hannover, Germany) and Th. Kohl (Ziirich,
Switzerland) were helpful for various scientific as-
pects of our work.
Appendix A
Temperature gradients (°C/100 m, with standard deviations), stratigraphy, respective thermal conductivities (W m-I K-l , with standard
deviations) and calculated heat flow values (mW/m2, with standard deviations) of oil wells in the Thrace region, in the Marmara and
Aegean Sea
East. long. North. lat. Name Gradient Stratigraphy Thermal conductivity Heat flow
(°) (o)
26.9806 41.2252 Karaptircek 1 2.05 + 0.06 Oligocene 2.3 4- 0.3 47 4- 8
27.8759 41.1005 Corlu 1 2.71 4- 0.13 Oligocene 2.3 4- 0.3 62 4- 12
26.7108 41.0214 Maltepe 1 2.01 4- 0.17 Eocene 3.1 4- 0.2 62 4- 10
27.2328 41.1197 Kandamis 1 1.42 4- 0.02 Oligocene 2.3 4- 0.3 33 4- 5
27.6633 41.265 Vakiflar 1 2.46 4- 0.04 Oligocene 2.3 4- 0.3 57 4- 8
28.2859 40.6835 Marmara 1 2.6 4- 0.9 (BHT) ? ? ?
28.1851 41.0524 Kmarmara 1 3.2 4- 1.0 (BHT) ? ? ?
26.8099 39.5107 Edremit 1 3.2 4- 1.1 (BHT) ? ? ?
26.1919 40.5266 Saros 1 8.24-? (BHT) ? ? ?
Appendix B
Characteristics of 44 wells: number (No.) and coordinates of well location (East. long. and North. lat.); location name (Name); model of
heat flow calculation (Method): F = vertical groundwater flow in the environs of the borehole, B = vertical water flow in a limited depth
range, R = water flow within the borehole, G = linear gradient model (Eq. 4); observation interval length in depth scale (Int.), depth of
heat flow determination (Depth), thermal conductivity value (~.) and heat flow value (q) (both with standard error)
No. East. long. North. long. (o) Name Method Int. Depth ~ 4- tr q 4- tr
(°) (°) (m) (m) (W/K m) (mW/m2)
2 28.8765 40.1982 Kite R 80 140 2.0 4- 0.5 52 4- 15
3 29.4382 40.1059 Ineg61 F 120 130 2.0 4- 0.5 89 4- 22
5 28.9618 40.2522 Linyitleri F 76 96 3.5 + 0.6 88 4- 15
7 29.1588 40.2579 Kazikli G 46 96 2.0 4- 0.5 60 4- 19
11 29.0632 40.2703 Demirtas F 70 80 2.0 4- 0.5 26 4- 7
12 29.0800 41.0300 Ist. Cam. G 80 100 3.0 4- 0.2 37 4- 6
13 27.9060 39.6239 ~aiyrhisar F 120 140 2.0 4- 0.5 80 4- 20
15 27.9700 39.6700 K6seler G 110 130 2.0 4- 0.5 64 4- 18
18 27.6559 40.1802 G/Snen G 72 112 2.0 4- 0.5 130 4- 33
21 27.5926 40.0541 G6n. Bal~i F 30 40 2.0 4- 0.5 48 4- 12
22 27.9441 40.3029 Bandirma F 40 50 2.0 4- 0.5 51 4- 13
25 27.1588 40.2455 Biga G 30 40 2.0 4- 0.5 54 4- 17
101 28.4706 40.0495 Mustafak. B 28 84 3.5 4- 0.6 113 + 19
104 29.1118 40.3986 Ask. Vet. G 21 85 2.0 4- 0.5 17 -t- 10
t06 29.9294 40.2860 ~umali G 15 25 2.9 4- 0.2 65 4- 8
107 29.6941 40.3604 Mecidiye G 30 70 3.0 4- 0.2 30 4- 5
108 29.2020 39.7030 Ok~ular B 30 70 1.6 4- 0.2 20 4- 3
13. 88
Appendix B (continued)
M. Pfister et al./Tectonophysics 291 (1998) 77-89
No. East. long. North. long. (°) Name Method Int. Depth )~4- cr q 4- cr
(°) (°) (m) (m) (W/K m) (mW/m2)
109 29.3353 40.4234 Akharim G 20 76 2.0 4- 0.5 26 4- 7
110 29.4471 40.2027 Soguksu B 22 72 2.6 4- 0.3 56 4- 6
118 27.4448 39.4910 Iv. Kayapa B 62 102 3.2 4- 0.2 96 4- 6
119 27.8309 40.2613 (~arik F 80 90 2.3 4- 0.2 102 5:9
120 28.2971 39.4820 Turfullar G 110 120 1.7 + 0.2 75 4- 9
131 28.8460 41.2160 Kisirm. B 56 96 1.8 + 0.2 47 4- 15
136 27.9383 41.2590 Velikty B 12 68 1.9 4- 0.2 33 + 4
140 27.9324 39.6802 Anad. Lis. B 74 84 2.0 4- 0.5 70 4- 18
142 27.9015 39.4730 Selimiye G 86 96 1.7 4- 0.2 166 4- 20
150 26.3350 40.3190 Yolagzi F 90 100 2.0 4- 0.5 73 4- 23
201 27.4844 39.1977 Saricalar G 50 150 1.9 4- 0.2 55 4- 10
203 28.8235 40.5205 Armutlu B 70 80 2.5 4- 0.5 67 4- 14
206 30.2664 40.9099 Kaymaz B 10 45 3.1 -4-0.2 55 4- 4
207 28.0698 39.7703 Kiirse G 58 68 1.5 4- 0.2 45 4- 10
208 28.5000 39.6081 ~amkty F 45 75 3.3 4- 0.2 39 4- 3
209 27.9441 39.5135 Inkaya G 48 78 1.9 4- 0.2 95 4- 15
210 27.4882 40.5495 Ekinlik Ada G 30 50 2.7 4- 0.2 84 + 15
211 27.2063 39.0946 Bergama B 30 100 2.0 + 0.5 45 4- 12
212 30.0500 40,4750 Pamukova G 20 60 2.0 4- 0.5 20 4- 16
213 30.4375 40.9369 Findikli G 60 100 3.1 4- 0.2 66 4- 16
214 29.4048 40.9414 Akfirat B 63 78 3.1 4- 0.2 56 4- 4
215 28.6988 41.2000 Tasoluk F 130 150 2.3 4- 0.2 60 4- 6
216 28.5151 41.0360 Tiirkobasi B 110 145 1.9 -4-0.2 50 4- 5
217 27.0521 41.0428 Ytrgiiq G 45 75 2.0 4- 0.5 48 4- 15
218 27.5452 41.1104 Kepeneldi B 35 165 1.9 4- 0.2 43 4- 5
219 26.8692 39.2500 Besiktepe G 15 115 1.8 4- 0.3 75 4- 15
220 30.7460 40.589 Samanpaz. G 20 40 1.6 4- 0.2 72 ± 14
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