A 45-year-old lady slipped and fell, sustaining a fracture of the femur at the lesser trochanter. Fractures of the femur can be extracapsular or intracapsular, with extracapsular fractures further classified as trochanteric or subtrochanteric. Trochanteric fractures are classified using the Evans system. Treatment involves surgical or non-surgical methods, with surgical fixation being the standard approach using devices like the sliding hip screw, dynamic hip screw, or intramedullary nail. Post-operatively, partial weight bearing is allowed depending on the stability of the fixation and quality of the bone.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. 45 year old lady slips and falls on the ground.
She is unable to get up and walk. The X Ray
reveals a fracture of the femur at the lesser
trochanter.
3.
4. FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR
Two types
Extracapsular
Intracapsular
Extra capsular
Trochanteric
Subtrochanteric
5. Trochanteric (Evan’s classification)
Stable # configuration – Type A & B
Unstable # configuration – Type C & D
Type C – lateral cortex is intact
Type D – lateral cortex is violated
Type E – Reverse obliquity
Fractures parallel to neck axis &traverse lat. cortex
6.
7. Subtrochanteric
Three types- Simple, Wedge , Complex
All unstable due to relatively small contact area
8. Intra capsular
Classification (Low energy)
Fracture site- subcapitus, transcervical, basicervical
Inclination of the # -
Pauwel’s classification
Type I – 30 degree
Type II – 50
Type III – 70
9. Relation of # fragment
Garden classification
Type I – incomplete & impacted
Type II – Complete & undisplaced
Type III – Complete & partially displaced
(intact post.retinacular ligament)
Type IV – completely displaced
(disruption of reti.vessels)
10. Classification (High Enegy)
Type I - undisplaced neck #
Type II – simple displaced neck #
Type III – Comminuted displaced neck #
Type IV – FON + # of acetabulum or shaft of the femur
Type V – Neck # that occur or recognized during
antegrade nailing of shaft
11. FIRST AID
Safe place
Reassure the person
Have the victim lie flat and rest.
Ask for help
CPR
If there is a wound remove the clothes
If there is bleeding apply direct pressure to the
wound to stop the bleeding.
Cover the wounded area with a clean cloth or
dressing.
Continue to apply pressure as long as the
wound bleeds. Add new dressings over existing
ones.
12. Immobilize the injured area. A splint is a
good way to immobilize the affected area,
reduce pain and prevent shock.
Effective splints can be made. The general
rule is to splint a joint above and below the
fracture.
Or, lightly tape or tie an injured leg to the
uninjured one, putting padding between
the legs, if possible.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17. Check the pulse in the limb with the splint. If you
cannot find it, the splint is too tight and must be
loosened at once. Check for swelling,
numbness, tingling or a blue tinge to the skin.
Any of these signs indicate the splint is too tight
and must be loosened right away to prevent
permanent injury
Keep her fasting
Inform relatives
Move to hospital
19. CARE OF INJURY – 4 STAGES
Prevention
Pre-hospital care
Hospital care
Rehabilitation
“Manage the patient, Not the fracture”
20. INITIAL ASSESSMENT AND RESUSCITATION
A = Airway
B = Breathing
C = Circulation
D = Disability of CNS
E = Exposure of the patient
F = Foley catheter
22. CIRCULATION
Blood loss is greater than the NOF
fracture and trochanteric fracture. Large
volume of blood can accumulate in the
thigh.
Skin: cold , pale ,sweating
Pulse: rate, volume, rhythm
Blood Pressure
JVP
Adequate fluid resuscitation.
23. DISABILITY OF CNS- AVPU
Head injury
Examination: Level of consciousness
External wounds
Pupils- dilated, unequal
CT scan of the brain
24. Damage to cervical spine
Suspected in all unconscious and
head injured patients.
In line bimanual immobilization
Semi rigid collar
X-ray cervical spine
27. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS-
Localized bone diseases
1. Metastases from carcinoma breast, lung, kidney,
and thyroid.
2. Multiple myeloma
3. Primary bone tumors
Malignant-
Osteosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma
Benign
Osteoclastoma
Bone cyst
28. HISTORY
1.Name- (for identification purposes)
2.Age-important to identify the disease
since most of the diseases have an age
distribution
eg:- osteoporosis -over 50 yrs
osteosarcoma-10-25 yrs
osteoma 40-50yrs
Parosteal osteosarcoma-30- 60yrs
-imporatant to take decisions on surgical
fitness
29. 3.Sex- Osteoporosis is more common in females
4.Occupation-exposure to radioactive radium and
thorium dioxide increases the risk of
development of osteosarcoma
5.P/C-
What has happen-(circumstance)
?accident/?deliberate harm
At what time?
After math-LOC/Numbness/Bleeding/
Inability to walk
Time of the last meal?
Intoxication?(alcohol/drugs)
30. Early fractures or any prolong immobilisation?
Suffering from any illness?
Wt loss (CA/TB)
Change in Ht?
Hx of renal stones?
6.PMHx-DM,HT,Asthma
Cushing’s,Hyperthyroidism,Acromegaly
CVA,fainting attack,epilepsy,hypoglysemia
7.PDHx- Corticosteroids
8.PSHx-Any previous trauma,any Sx and
complications
33. GENERAL EXAMINATION
•Patient is in pain
•Unable to stand
•Limb is shortened and lies in external
rotation
•Skin wounds or obvious deformity
34. MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL STATE
PHYSICAL ATTITUDE
GAIT
PHYSIQUE
FACE
SKIN
HANDS
FEET
NECK – LYMPH NODES, THYROID GLAND
BREAST
AXILLAE
T
PULSE
RESPIRATION
ODOURS
36. EXAMINATION OF THE HIP JOINT
Inspection
Skin changes- Redness, swelling
Shape
Position
Scars
Wasting of gluteal and thigh muscles
Palpation
Temperature, tenderness over the joint
Skin, soft tissue, muscles, bone
Movements
Voluntary, involuntary , crepitus
Flexion- measured with knee bent. Opposite thigh must remain in neutral position. Flex
the knee as the hip flexes.
Abduction- measured from a line that forms an angle of 90 degrees with a line joining
the ASISs .
Adduction
Rotation in flexion
Rotation in extension
Extension- attempt to extend the hip with the patient lying in the lateral or prone position
37. HAEMATOMA OR BRUIT OVER THE AREA SUGGEST
ARTERIAL DAMAGE .
Look for,
•Shortening in External rotation of the
involved extremity
•Palpation below the ingunum elicits pain
•Inability to move
40. 1. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
WHY? 1) CARDIOVASCULAR SYNCOPY OR
INITIAL STROKE COULD HAVE CAUSED THE
FALL
2) DETECT OTHER CARDIOVASCULAR
PROBLEMS
Inspection
Palpation
Percussion
Auscultation
43. 3. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
•Examination of Associated Injuries
Wrist #
Head injury
Most frequently associated injuries are due to
patient’s osteoporosis in other areas of the
body.
They are sustained at the same time as the
trochanteric fracture
44. RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
• AP Radiograph of the distal Pelvis
•AP and Lateral Radiographs of the hip joint
•Femur
•Knee joint
^
46. DIAGNOSE FRACTURE
X-Ray Hip
Rule of 2s
2views
2joints
2limbs
2times
Rule of As
Anatomy
Articularv
Alignment
Angulation
Apex
Apposition
CT Scan-Not indicated in routine evaluation
47. FIND AETIOLOGY
X-ray- Osteoporosis
Paget’s Disease
Chondrosarcoma
Lytic lesion Involves the inferior aspect
of the neck and the medial
intertrochanteric area.
48. Ewing sarcoma.
Entire proximal part of the femur is
filled with mottled sclerotic
densities indicative of a diffuse
pathological process.
49. CXR , X-ray pelvis, Bone scan -
Metastasis
Serum Ca –Hyperparathyroidism
Osteomalacia
T3,T4- Hyperthyroidism
Bone marrow biopsy- Multiple myeloma
53. DEFINITIVE MANAGEMENT OF THE FRACTURE
Management of fracture can be considered as,
Operative treatment
Non operative treatment
Indications for Non operative Treatment
An elderly person whose medical condition carries
an excessively high risk of mortality from
anaesthesia and surgery
Non ambulatory patient who has minimal
discomfort following fracture
54. NON OPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
Skeletal traction is the most common method used to control and reduce
pain
In subtrochanteric fracture most common method to reduce the fracture
is by skeletal traction with a transcondylar Steinmann pin
90 degree flexion is used to relax the iliopsoas: correct the flexion and
external rotational deformities
period of traction ranges from 12 to 16 weeks
should be monitored with regular radiological imaging
Early removal of skeletal traction may be followed by bracing with a hip
spica cast when early callus is seen in x-ray films.
Maintenance exercise must be administered regularly to maintain the
mobility of joints and muscle strength
55. POSITION OF PATIENT IN TREATING SUBTROCHANTERIC FRACTURES WITH SKELETAL TRACTION
56. COMPLICATIONS
In elderly patients, this approach was associated with high complication
rates
typical problems included decubiti, urinary tract infection, joint
contractures,
pneumonia, and thromboembolic complications, resulting in a high
mortality rate.
In addition, fracture healing was generally accompanied by varus
deformity and shortening because of the inability of traction to effectively
counteract the deforming muscular forces
57. SURGICAL TREATMENT
Surgical stabilization is the standard of care
Internal fixation of fractured end is widely performed.
Intramedullary nail fixation is the preferred treatment
Two methods
Open Method
Closed Method
58. OPEN METHOD
possible in fractures with minimal comminution but it demands an
extensive dissection
weight-bearing may not be possible until the fracture heals
disadvantage of the open technique is extensive soft tissue
dissection
temporarily fixed with reduction forceps or Kirschner wire (K-wire)
fixation; then fixed with lag screws
plate is fixed proximally to the femoral head and neck for maximal
stability
59.
60. CLOSED METHOD
closed reduction and internal fixation
Closed reduction is usually performed with the use of a fracture
traction table with a transcondylar Steinmann pin
fixation can be carried out with percutaneous implant insertion
most common implant used is the intramedullary locked nail
does not disturb the fracture hematoma
minimum soft tissue dissection
need to use fluoroscopy and the difficulty in performing distal
locking are potential disadvantages
61. SLIDING HIP SCREW
This device is indicated only for very proximal fractures.
The sliding of the screw allows medialization of the distal
fragment, which reduces bending moment on fracture and implant
62. OTHER TREATMENT
Hence this was pathological fracture we have to find the cause and treat
for that.
metastatic tumours are the most common types of tumour deposits in
this region
So other metastatic sites should also be investigated before definitive
fixation of the fracture is performed.
In the case of primary, investigate for secondaries and follow
chemotherapy / Radiation therapy
64. Pre operative measures
a) Assessment of the patient
Cormobid factors
Surgical fitness
Risk for anesthesia
b) Pre operative templating - for proximal
comminution the use of a fixed angle
device with the proper blade and
compression screw length
65. When an intramedullary device is chosen,
templating for length, canal diameter is
necessary for proper planning.
c)Measurements
Normal side femur length
67. Extra medullary devices
1.)Sliding compression screw plate
2.)Dynamic hip screw(DHS) e.g:-DCS
Indications:-
Fractures with stable configurations
Unstable fractures with an intact lateral cortex
68. Intra medulary devices
1)Intra medullary hip screw(IMHS)
Cephalomedullary nails
Reconstruction nails(centromedullary)
Indications:-
Shorter nail-If fracture line doesn’t extend more
than 1 to 2cm distal to lesser trochanter
Longer nail-unstable fractures
70. External fixation-
Rarely used but is indicated in severe
open fractures.
For most patients, external fixation is temporary,
and conversion to internal fixation can be made if
and when the soft tissues have healed
sufficiently.
71. Post operative period.
1.)Following intramedullary nailing if the bone quality
and cortical contact is adequate, 50% partial weight
bearing can be allowed immediately.
With less stability, patients can perform touchdown
weight bearing.
Following OR and plate fixation, minimal protected
weight bearing can begin immediately but is advanced
slowly beginning approximately 4 weeks after surgery,
with full weight bearing anticipated at 8-12 weeks.
Elderly patients may have difficulty with compliance with
weight bearing restrictions.
72. 2.) Check for proper union
3.) Prevent infections
4.) Wound care
5.) Nutrition- high protein diet
73. COMPLICATIONS
Acute complications
1. Damage to nerves and blood vessels
2. Haemorrhage
3. Other soft tissue damage
Long term complications
1. Failure of fixation
-screws may cut out of the bone if reduction is poor or
if the fixation device is incorrectly positioned. Reduction
and fixation may have to be re-done.
74. 2. Malunion
-only complication that is frequent
-may occur through bending or breakage of a nail plate or
simply through compression of the soft cancellous bone
with metal.
-causes union with a slightly reduced neck-shaft angle-
coxa vara
75. -If neglected,
I. May unite with marked lateral rotation of the shaft.
II. May develop severe coxa vera associated with shortenig.
Treatment
1. In most cases, can be accepted without treatment.
2. In severe deformities,
-the bone is divided in the trochanteric region and the
fragments are secured in the correct position by a compressive
screw plate or other appropriate device(as in a fresh fracture.
76. complications due to treatments
1. casts
-pressure ulcers
-thermal burns
-thrombophlebitis
2. Internal fixation
-infections
-neurological and vascular injury
-thromboembolic events
-avascular necrosis
-posttraumatic arthritis
79. FOLLOW-UP
Close follow-up is required following
fixation
50% PWB can be allowed immediately
Wound is checked for proper healing 7-14
days post operatively
DKA 08-09-10
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80. Patient should have monthly clinical
evaluations and radiographs to monitor
healing.
Quadriceps rehab to be started within 02
weeks post operatively
Most patients will have significant
disability for 4-6 months
DKA 08-09-10
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81. Impact activities may be possible after 06
months (Should wait 01 year before
returning to full contact sports)
DKA 08-09-10
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82. REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation involves:
* Ankle pumps (to prevent DVT)
* Chest Physiotherapy (Airway clearance)
* Exercises :
Quadriceps, Hamstrings and Glutei
(Isometrics)
Heel Slides (in supine lying)
Strengthening Ex to Upper Limbs (Before
prescription of walking aids)
DKA 08-09-10
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86. Mobility and weight bearing
* Increase bed mobility (Supine to Sitting)
* Increase ambulation with appropriate weight
bearing (TDWB with walker -> PWB with walker)
* Perform SLR (up to 6” from the bed level in
supine lying)
* Mini Squats
DKA 08-09-10
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89. Within 1-2 Weeks
* Reinforce good posture
* Add standing hip abduction, adduction,
extension and flexion with hip and knee flexion
exercises
DKA 08-09-10
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90. DISCHARGE CRITERIA
Gets out of bed independently.
Able to ambulate 50 feet independently in a
hall with assistive device.
In and out of bathroom independently.
DKA 08-09-10
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91. AFTER DISCHARGE
Advice to the patient on:
Changes to the home environment
Lifestyle changes
Prevention
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