This document provides an overview of various theories of motivation. It discusses early theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McGregor's Theory X and Y. It also examines content theories that focus on needs like ERG theory and acquired needs theory. Process theories explained include equity theory, expectancy theory, and reinforcement theory. The document also covers goal-setting theory, job design approaches, and the job characteristics model for designing motivating jobs.

1. By Hosam Dahb and Mahmoud Ibrahim

2. Motivation is the
Secret of Synergy
People will be more engaged
when they do things they
really like
2

3. What Is Motivation?
Motivation

Is the process by which a person’s efforts
are energized, directed, and sustained
towards attaining a goal.

Motivation works best when individual
needs are compatible with organizational
goals.
3

4. A Simple Model of Motivation
NEED-Creates desire to fulfill
needs (food, friendship,
recognition, achievement).
BEHAVIOR-Results in
actions to fulfill
needs.
REWARDS-Satisfy needs;
intrinsic or extrinsic
rewards.
FEEDBACK-Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and
should be used again.
4

5. 5

6. Motivation Theories
Content Theories
Process Theories
A group of theories that emphasize A group of theories that explain
the needs that motivate people.
how employees select behaviors
with which to meet their needs and
determine whether their choices
were successful.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Equity Theory
ERG Theory
Expectancy Theory
Two-Factor Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Acquired Needs Theory
6

7. Early Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to higherorder needs.


Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.


Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they
can satisfy higher order needs.
Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level
that person is on the hierarchy.
Hierarchy of needs

Lower-order (external): physiological, safety

Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-actualization
7

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
SelfActualization
Needs
represent the
need for
self-fulfillment
Esteem Needs
desire for a positive self-image
and to receive attention
Belongingness Needs
desire to be accepted by one’s peers
Safety Needs
safe and secure physical and emotional environment
Physiological Needs
most basic human physical needs
8

9. Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X


Theory Y


Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid
responsibility, and require close supervision.
Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction, desire
responsibility, and like to work.
Assumption:

Motivation is maximized by participative decision making,
interesting jobs, and good group relations.
9

10. ERG Theory
Growth Needs
human potential,
personal growth, and increased
competence
Relatedness Needs
the need for satisfactory relationships
with others
Existence Needs
the needs for physical well-being
10

11. Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by
different factors.



Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that
create job dissatisfaction.
Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create
job satisfaction.
Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not
necessarily result in increased performance.

The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but
rather no satisfaction.
11

12. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Area of Satisfaction
Highly
Satisfied
Motivators
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work
Personal growth
Area of Satisfaction
Motivators
influence level
of satisfaction.
Neither
Satisfied nor Area of Dissatisfaction
Dissatisfied
Hygiene
Factors
Highly
Dissatisfied
Working conditions
Pay and security
Company policies
Supervisors
Interpersonal
relationships
Hygiene factors
influence level
of dissatisfaction.
12

13. Motivation and Needs
Three-Needs (Acquired Needs) Theory (McClelland)

There are three major acquired needs that are major motives in work.

Need for achievement (nAch)


Need for power (nPow)


The drive to excel and succeed
The need to influence the behavior of others
Need of affiliation (nAff)

The desire for interpersonal relationships
13

14. Process Theories
A group of theories that explain how employees select behaviors
with which to meet their needs and determine whether their
choices were successful.
Equity Theory

Focuses on individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated
compared with others.

Motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for
performance.
14

15. Motivation and Perception (cont’d)

Equity Theory (cont’d)

Employee responses to perceived inequities:


Induce others to change their own inputs or
outcomes.

Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or
outcomes (seek greater rewards).

Choose a different comparison (referent) other
(person, systems, or self).


Distort own or others’ ratios.
Quit their job.
Employees are concerned with both the absolute and
relative nature of organizational rewards.
15

16. Exhibit 16–8
Equity Theory
16

17. Process Theories (contd.)
Expectancy Theory

Motivation depends on individuals’ expectations about their
ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards.

Concerned not with identifying types of needs but with the
thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards.

Based on the effort, performance, and desirability of
outcomes.
17

18. Motivation and Behavior

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

States that an individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.

Key to the theory is understanding and managing
employee goals and the linkages among and between
effort, performance and rewards.

Effort: employee abilities and training/development

Performance: valid appraisal systems

Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs
18

19. Simplified Expectancy Model
19

20. Major Elements of Expectancy Theory
20

21. Motivation and Behavior

Reinforcement Theory

Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its
consequences, is externally caused, and if
reinforced, is likely to be repeated.

Positive reinforcement is preferred for its longterm effects on performance

Ignoring undesired behavior is better than
punishment which may create additional
dysfunctional behaviors.
21

22. Reinforcement Perspective
on Motivation
Positive reinforcement in the
administration of a pleasant and
rewarding consequence.
Avoidance learning is the removal of
an unpleasant consequence
following a desired behavior.
Reinforcement Tools
Punishment is the imposition of
unpleasant outcomes on an employee.
Extinction is the withdrawal of a positive
reward; behavior is no longer reinforced
and hence is less likely to occur in the
future.
22

23. Changing Behavior With
Reinforcement
daft figure 12.6.CLP
23

24. Motivation and Goals

Goal-Setting Theory


Proposes that setting goals that are accepted,
specific, and challenging yet achievable will
result in higher performance than having no or
easy goals.
Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting

Increases the acceptance of goals.

Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.

Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of
control) that guides behavior and motivates
performance (self-efficacy).
24

25. Designing Motivating Jobs

Job Design

The way into which tasks can be combined to form complete jobs.

Factors influencing job design:


The organization’s technology


Changing organizational environment/structure
Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences
Job enlargement


Increasing the job’s scope (number and frequency of tasks)
”horizontal”.
Job enrichment

Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a job ”Vertical”.
25

26. Types of Job Design
Job Simplification
Worker A Worker B
Task
1
Task
2
Job Enlargement
Job Rotation
Worker C
Worker C
Worker A
Worker B
Task
3
Task
1
Task
2
Task
3
Worker A
Task
1
Task
2
Task
3
26

27. Designing Motivating Jobs (cont’d)

Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that create
meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’ growth needs.

Five primary job characteristics:

Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?

Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?

Task significance: how important is the job?

Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder have?

Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?
27

28. Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
28

29. Designing Motivating Jobs (cont’d)

Suggestions for Using the JCM

Combine tasks (job enlargement) to create
more meaningful work.

Create natural work units to make employees’
work important and whole.

Establish external and internal client
relationships to provide feedback.

Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by
giving employees more autonomy.

Open feedback channels to let employees
know how well they are doing.
29

30. A Continuum of Empowerment
daft figure 12.11.CLP
30

31. Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation
31