Monetary policy manages the money supply through tools like adjusting interest rates, purchasing or selling government securities, and changing required bank reserves. It aims to regulate inflation, unemployment, and currency exchange rates. Johnson defines monetary policy as employing central bank control of the money supply to achieve general economic policy goals, while Shaw defines it as conscious actions to change the quantity, availability, or cost of money.

1. Monetary policy is an economic policy that manages the size and growth rate of the money supply in an
economy. It is a powerful tool to regulate macroeconomic variables such as inflation and unemployment.
Johnson defines monetary policy “as policy employing central bank’s control of the supply of money as an
instrument for achieving the objectives of general economic policy.”
G.K. Shaw defines it as “any conscious action undertaken by the monetary authorities to change the
quantity, availability or cost of money.”
According to A.G. Hart, "A policy which influences the public stock of money substitute of public
demand for such assets of both that is policy which influences public liquidity position is known as
a monetary policy."
These policies are implemented through different tools, including the adjustment of the interest rates,
purchase or sale of government securities, and changing the amount of cash circulating in the
economy. The central bank or a similar regulatory organization is responsible for formulating these policies.
IMPORTANCE OF MONETARY
POLICY

2.  Objectives of Monetary Policy
 The primary objectives of monetary policies are the management of inflation or
unemployment, and maintenance of currency exchange rates.

 1. Inflation
 Monetary policies can target inflation levels. A low level of inflation is considered
to be healthy for the economy. If inflation is high, a contractionary policy can
address this issue.

 2. Unemployment
 Monetary policies can influence the level of unemployment in the economy. For
example, an expansionary monetary policy generally decreases unemployment
because the higher money supply stimulates business activities that lead to the
expansion of the job market.

 3. Currency exchange rates
 Using its fiscal authority, a central bank can regulate the exchange rates between
domestic and foreign currencies. For example, the central bank may increase the
money supply by issuing more currency. In such a case, the domestic currency
becomes cheaper relative to its foreign counterparts.

3.  Objectives of Monetary Policy
 The primary objectives of monetary policies are the management of inflation or
unemployment, and maintenance of currency exchange rates.

 1. Inflation
 Monetary policies can target inflation levels. A low level of inflation is considered
to be healthy for the economy. If inflation is high, a contractionary policy can
address this issue.

 2. Unemployment
 Monetary policies can influence the level of unemployment in the economy. For
example, an expansionary monetary policy generally decreases unemployment
because the higher money supply stimulates business activities that lead to the
expansion of the job market.

 3. Currency exchange rates
 Using its fiscal authority, a central bank can regulate the exchange rates between
domestic and foreign currencies. For example, the central bank may increase the
money supply by issuing more currency. In such a case, the domestic currency
becomes cheaper relative to its foreign counterparts.

4. Tools of monetary policy
 1. Interest rate adjustment
 A central bank can influence interest rates by changing the discount rate. The discount rate (base
rate) is an interest rate charged by a central bank to banks for short-term loans. For example, if a
central bank increases the discount rate, the cost of borrowing for the banks increases.
Subsequently, the banks will increase the interest rate they charge their customers. Thus, the cost
of borrowing in the economy will increase, and the money supply will decrease.

 2. Change reserve requirements
 Central banks usually set up the minimum amount of reserves that must be held by a commercial
bank. By changing the required amount, the central bank can influence the money supply in the
economy. If monetary authorities increase the required reserve amount, commercial banks find less
money available to lend to their clients and thus, money supply decreases.
 Commercial banks can’t use the reserves to make loans or fund investments into new businesses.
Since it constitutes a lost opportunity for the commercial banks, central banks pay them interest on
the reserves. The interest is known as IOR or IORR (interest on reserves or interest on required
reserves).

 3. Open market operations
 The central bank can either purchase or sell securities issued by the government to affect the
money supply. For example, central banks can purchase government bonds. As a result, banks will
obtain more money to increase the lending and money supply in the economy.


5.  1. Interest rate adjustment
 A central bank can influence interest rates by changing the discount rate. The discount rate (base
rate) is an interest rate charged by a central bank to banks for short-term loans. For example, if a
central bank increases the discount rate, the cost of borrowing for the banks increases.
Subsequently, the banks will increase the interest rate they charge their customers. Thus, the cost
of borrowing in the economy will increase, and the money supply will decrease.

 2. Change reserve requirements
 Central banks usually set up the minimum amount of reserves that must be held by a commercial
bank. By changing the required amount, the central bank can influence the money supply in the
economy. If monetary authorities increase the required reserve amount, commercial banks find less
money available to lend to their clients and thus, money supply decreases.
 Commercial banks can’t use the reserves to make loans or fund investments into new businesses.
Since it constitutes a lost opportunity for the commercial banks, central banks pay them interest on
the reserves. The interest is known as IOR or IORR (interest on reserves or interest on required
reserves).

 3. Open market operations
 The central bank can either purchase or sell securities issued by the government to affect the
money supply. For example, central banks can purchase government bonds. As a result, banks will
obtain more money to increase the lending and money supply in the economy.


6.  Expansionary vs. Contractionary Monetary Policy
 Depending on its objectives, monetary policies can be expansionary or
contractionary.

 Expansionary Monetary Policy
 This is a monetary policy that aims to increase the money supply in the economy
by decreasing interest rates, purchasing government securities by central banks,
and lowering the reserve requirements for banks. An expansionary policy lowers
unemployment and stimulates business activities and consumer spending. The
overall goal of the expansionary monetary policy is to fuel economic growth.
However, it can also possibly lead to higher inflation.

 Contractionary Monetary Policy
 The goal of a contractionary monetary policy is to decrease the money supply in
the economy. It can be achieved by raising interest rates, selling government
bonds, and increasing the reserve requirements for banks. The contractionary
policy is utilized when the government wants to control inflation levels.



7. Quantitative and Qualitative methods
 The implementation of RBI's Quantitative and Qualitative (Called as Monetary Policy) instruments plays an
important role in the development of the country. If the required money supply for the economy is not
available in the market, it leads to a decline in investment in the economy. On the other hand, if the money
supply in the economy is more than what is required, then the poor section of the economy will suffer
because the price of essential commodities will rise.
 In the Indian Economy, RBI is the sole authority that decides the money supply in the economy. And to
control this, RBI implements the monetary policy's Quantitative and Qualitative instruments to achieve
economic goals. The main instruments of these policies are CRR, SLR, Bank Rate, Repo Rate, Reverse
Repo Rate, Open Market Operations, etc.
 Let's understand the Quantitative and Qualitative instruments of RBI's monetary policy individually.
 Quantitative Methods
 The quantitative instruments are also known as general tools used by the RBI (Reserve Bank of India). As
the name suggests, these instruments are related to the quantity and volume of the money. These
instruments are designed to control the total volume/money of the bank credit in the economy. These
instruments are indirect in their nature and are used to influence the quantity of credit in the economy.
 Bank Rate Policy
 The bank rate is the minimum rate at which the central bank lends money and rediscounts first-class bills of
exchange and securities held by commercial banks. When RBI gets a hint that inflation is rising, it increases
the bank interest rates so that commercial banks borrow less money and the inflation stays under control.
 Commercial banks also increase their lending rate to the public and business enterprises so that people
borrow less money, which will eventually help to control inflation.
 On the other hand, when RBI reduces bank rates, that means borrowing for commercial banks will become
cheap and easier. This allows the commercial banks to lend money to borrowers on a lower lending rate,
which will further encourage borrowers and businessmen.

8. Johnson defines monetary policy “as policy employing
central bank’s control of the supply of money as an
instrument for achieving the objectives of general
economic policy.” G.K. Shaw defines it as “any
conscious action undertaken by the monetary
authorities to change the quantity, availability or cost of
money.”

9.  Legal Reserve Ratios
 The commercial banks have to keep a certain amount of reserve assets in the form of
reserve cash. Some portion of these cash reserves is their total assets in the form of cash.
 To maintain liquidity and to control credit in the economy, the RBI also keeps a certain
amount of cash reserves. These reserve ratios are known as SLR (Statutory Liquidity
Ratio) and CRR (Cash Reserve Ratio).
 CRR refers to a certain percentage of commercial bank's net demand and time liability that
commercial banks have to maintain with the RBI at all times. In India, the CRR remains
between 3-15 per cent by the law.
 SLR refers to a certain percentage of reserves to be maintained in the form of gold and
foreign securities. In India, SLR remains 25-40% by the law.
 Any changes in SLR and CRR bring out the change in the position of commercial banks.
 Open Market Operations (OMO)
 The sale and purchase of security in the long run/short run by the RBI in the money market is
known as open market operations. This is a popular instrument of the RBI's monetary
policy.
 To influence the term and structure of the interest rate and to stabilize the market for
government securities, etc., the RBI uses OMO, and this operation is also used to wipe out
the shortage of money in the money market.
 If RBI sells securities in the money market, private and commercial banks and even
individuals buy it. This leads to a reduction in the existing money supply as money gets
transferred from commercial banks to the RBI. On the other hand, when RBI buys securities
from the commercial banks, the commercial banks that sell receive the amount they had
invested in RBI before.
 There are certain factors that affect OMOwhich include underdeveloped securities market,
excess reserves with the commercial banks, indebtedness of the commercial banks, etc.

10.  Repo Rate
 A Repo rate is a rate at which commercial banks borrow
money by selling their securities to the RBI to maintain
liquidity. Commercial banks sell their securities in case of a
shortage of funds or due to some statutory measures. It is
one of the main instruments of the RBI to keep inflation
under control.
 Reverse Repo Rate
 Sometimes, the RBI borrows money from commercial
banks when there is excess liquidity in the market. In that
case, commercial banks get benefits by receiving the
interest on their holdings with the RBI.
 At the time of higher inflation in the country, RBI increases
the reverse repo rate that encourages banks to park more
funds with the RBI, which will help it earn higher returns on
excess funds.


11.  Qualitative Methods
 Qualitative instruments are also known as selective instruments of the
RBI's monetary policy. These instruments are used for discriminating
between various uses of credit; for example, they can be used for
favouring export over import or essential over non-essential credit
supply. This method has an influence on both borrowers and lenders.
 Following are some selective tools of credit control used by the RBI:
 Rationing of Credit
 RBI fixes a credit amount to be granted for commercial banks. Credit is
given by limiting the amount available for each commercial bank. For
certain purposes, the upper credit limit can be fixed, and banks have to
stick to that limit. This helps in lowering the bank's credit exposure to
unwanted sectors. This instrument also controls the bill rediscounting.
 Regulation of Consumer Credit
 In this instrument, consumers' credit supply is regulated through the
instalment of sale and hire purchase of consumer goods. Here, features
like instalment amount, down payment, loan duration, etc., are all fixed
in advance, which helps to check the credit and inflation in the country.

12.  Change in Marginal Requirement
 Margin is referred to the certain proportion of the loan amount that is not offered or financed by the bank.
Change in marginal can lead to change in the loan size. This instrument is used to encourage the credit
supply for the necessary sectors and avoid it for the unnecessary sectors. That can be done by increasing
the marginal of unnecessary sectors and reducing the marginal of other needy sectors.
 Suppose, RBI feels that more credit supply should be allotted to the agricultural sector, then RBI will reduce
the margin, and even 80-90% of the loan can be allotted.
 Moral Suasion
 Moral suasion refers to the suggestions to commercial banks from the RBI that helps in restraining credits in
the inflationary period. RBI implies pressure on the Indian banking system without taking any strict action for
compliance with rules.
 Through monetary policy, commercial banks get informed of the expectations of RBI. The RBI can issue
directives, guidelines, suggestions for commercial banks regarding reducing credit supply for speculative
purposes under the moral suasion.

 Final Thoughts
 Monetary policy's quantitative and qualitative methods aim to accelerate growth and stability by controlling
the credit supply in the economy. Both the quantitative and qualitative instruments have their own merits and
demerits, but both of the instruments are important for the economic stability and price stability in the
economy. Both these methods are effective and efficient to control inflation and deflation due to the
movement of the money supply in the economy.
 Over the decades, it has been proven that the credit supply in the economy can be controlled better with the
coordination of both the general (Quantitative) and selective (Qualitative) methods rather than implementing
them individually in the economy.