Englishgrammar by Dr. bhawna bhardwaj

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR
BHAWNA BHARDWAJ
7/24/2019
bhawna

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SENTENCE:-A SENTENCE IS A GROUP OF WORDSTHAT
MAKES COMPLETESENSE.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.THESE
ORANGES ARE SWEET AND JUICY.2.BRIGHT MOONLIGHT
DISPELLED ALL MY SORROW.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES:-A SENTENCE THAT MAKES A
STATEMENT IS CALLED A DECLARATIVE OR ASSERTIVE
SENTENCE.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.SELF-CONFIDENCE IS KEY
TO SUCCESS.2.A THANKFUL HEART IS A PEACEFUL
HEART.1.SELF-CONFIDENCE IS KEY TO SUCCESS.2.A
THANKFUL HEART IS A PEACEFUL HEART.
INTEROGATIVESENTENCES:-A SENTENCE THAT
ENQUIRES ABOUT SOMETHING IS CALLED AN
INTEROGATIVESENTENCE.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.WHAT KIND
OF STORIESDO YOU LIKE?2.DO YOU LIKE MYSTERIES?
INTEROGATIVE SENTENCES MAY BE OF SIX KINDS:-
1.YES/NO QUESTIONS:-QUESTIONS THAT CAN BE
ANSWERED IN YES OR NO. THESE QUESTIONS BEGIN
WITHAUXILIARY VERBS LIKE IS,ARE,AM,WAS,
WERE,WILL,HAVE,HAD,DO,DID,CAN,MAY,SHOULD,ETC.
KINDS OF
SENTENCES
DECLARATIVE
OR ASSERTIVE
SENTENCES
IMPERATIVE
SENTENCES
INTEROGATIVE
SENTENCES
EXCLAMATORY
SENTENCES

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1.DID YOU RECEIVE MY MESSAGE IN TIME?2.WILL YOU
BE ABLE TO COME?
2.QUESTION-WORD QUESTIONS:-QUESTIONS THAT
BEGINWITHWORDS LIKE WHO,WHICH,WHAT,
WHEN,WHERE,HOW,HOWMUCH,ETC.
WHEN DID YOU BUY THIS CAR? HOW MUCH DID IT COST
YOU?
3.ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS:-IN ALTERNATIVE
QUESTIONS,THERE IS MORE THAN ONE QUESTION
JOINED BY OR:
WOULD YOU LIKE TO HAVE TEA OR COFFEE?WILL YOU
PAY THE DUES BY CHEQUE OR IN CASH?
4. RHETORICALQUESTIONS:-A RHETORICAL QUESTION
IS A QUESTIONONLY IN FORM ; IT ACTUALLY CARRIES
THE SENSE OF A STATEMENT :
ISN’T IT HOT TODAY? DIDN’T I GIVE YOU MY FULL
SUPPORT?
5. EMPHATIC QUESTIONS:-EMPHATIC QUESTIONS ARE
USED TO EXPRESS STRONG FEELINGSLIKE
ANGER,SURPRISE,ETC.:
WHO THE HELL IS HE TO INTERFEREIN MY AFFAIRS?
WHAT ON THE EARTHWERE YOU DOING THERE?
6. QUESTIONS TAGS:-A QUESTIONTAG IN A SHORT
QUESTIONTAGGED TO A STATEMENT . IT IS MEANT TO
SEEK CONFIRMATIONOF WHAT THE STATEMENT
CONVEYS:-
YOU ARE WILLING TO WORK FOR US, AREN’T YOU? SHE
DID NOT INFORM YOU, DID SHE?
7. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES:-AN IMPERATIVESENTENCE
EXPRESSES A COMMAND , REQUEST OR ADVICE.FOR

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EXAMPLE:-LEAVE THE ROOM IMMEDIATELY. OPEN THE
WINDOW,PLEASE.
8.EXCLAMATORYSENTENCES:-EXCLAMATORY
SENTENCES EXPRESS SUDDENEMOTIONLIKE
SURPRISE
,DELIGHT,PAIN,GRIEF,ANGER,DISGUST,ETC.WISHES CAN
ALSO BE CLASSIFIED AS EXCLAMATIONS.
1.WHAT A WITTYANSWER SHE GAVE! 2.WHAT A FALL IT
WAS!
3.HOW HUMANE HER RESPONSE WAS! 4.HOW
EARNESTLYSHE PLEADED!5. O THAT I WERE A BIRD!
5.ALAS,SHE DIED SO YOUNG! 6. WOULD THAT I HAD
NEVER LEFT INDIA! 7.IF ONLY I HAD A STRONG
FINANCIAL SUPPORT!8.MAY YOU BE BLESSED WITH
SUCCESS!9.MARVELLOUS! SUPERB! FINE!
PARTS OF SPEECH:-DIFFERENT CLASSES OR
CATEGORIES INTOWHICHWORDS AREDIVIDED TO
STUDY OF LANGUAGE ISCALLED PARTS OF SPEECH.
THERE ARE EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH:
1.NOUN 2.PRONOUN 3.ADJECTIVE 4.VERB 5.ADVERB
6.PREPOSITION 7.CONJUNCTION 8.INTERJECTION.

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NOUN:-A NOUN IS USED FOR NAME,PERSON,PLACEOR
THING,QUALITY,STATE,IDEA ETC.FOR EXAMPLE:-
BOY,GIRL,ABHINAV,SHABNAM,ARMY,RABBIT,TELEPHONE
ETC.
NOUNS ARE OF FOUR KINDS:-
1.COMMON NOUNS:-A COMMON NOUN IS A NAME
SHARED BY EVERY PERSONOR THING OF THE SAME
CLASS.ITDOES NOT REFER TO ANY PARTICULAR
PERSONOR THING.FOR EXAMPLE:-
MAN,WOMAN,TIGER,TREE,RIVER,HILL,TABLE ARE ALL
COMMON NOUNS.
2.PROPER NOUNS:-A PROPER NOUN IS THE NAME OF
PARTICULARPERSONOR THING.FOR EXAMPLE:-
SACHIN,ANITA,KAVERI,MT.EVEREST,TAJMAHAL ARE ALL
PROPER NOUNS.
KINDS OF
NOUNS
COMMON
NOUN
COLLECTIVE
NOUN
PROPER
NOUN
ABSTRACT
NOUN

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3.COLLECTIVE NOUNS:-A COLLECTIVE NOUN IS THE
NAME OF A GROUP OF PEOPLE OR COLLECTIVEOF
THINGS OF THE SAME KIND.FOR EXAMPLE:-
CLASS,TEAM,ARMY,SWARM,BUNDLE,BUNCHARE ALL
COLLECTIVENOUNS.
4.ABSTRACTNOUNS:-AN ABSTRACTNOUN IS THE NAME
OF A QUALITY,STATE OR IDEA.FOR EXAMPLE:-
BEAUTY,WISDOM,CHILDHOOD,BELIEF,THICKNESS ARE
ALL ABSTRACTNOUNS.
DEFINITION: Pronoun is word which we use to replace a
person,thing and an animal.
There are many kinds of pronouns as follow.
1) SubjectPronoun
2) ObjectPronoun
3) Possessive Adjective
4) Reflexive Pronoun
5) Intensive Pronoun
6) Possessive Pronoun
7) Definite Pronoun
8) Indefinite Pronoun
9) Interrogative Pronoun
10) Relative Pronoun
11) Distributive Pronoun
12) Demonstrative Pronoun
1) SUBJECTIVEPRONOUN
DEFINITION: Subject Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
stand instead of noun which is the subject of the sentence.
They are I, We, You, They, He, She and It.
Example:
- You are good student.
- She is a beautiful girl.
- They go to school.
2) OBJECTIVE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Object Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
stand instead of noun which is the object of the sentence. They
are Me, Us, You, Them, Him, Her and It.
Example:
- He kisses her.
- She slaps him.

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- They laugh loudly.
3) POSSESSIVEADJECTIVE
DEFINITION: Possessive Adjective is an adjective which is
used to show that something belong to somebody. They
are My, Our, Your, Their, His, Her and Its.
Example:
- My parents are generous.
- Your car is very modern.
- Their kids study English.
4) REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Reflexive Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
express the action that does not pass from a person to another
person, but it come back to the doer of the action as the
reflection of the mirror. They are Myself, Yourself, Himself,
Herself, Itself,Ourselves,Themselves and Yourselves.
Example:
- I cut myself.
- She kills herself.
- It feeds itself.
5) INTENSIVE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Intensive Pronoun is the pronoun which is used to
express the action that goes from one personto another, but it
does not come back to the doer of the action. They are Myself,
Yourself, Himself, Herself,Itself,Ourselves,Themselves and
Yourselves.
Example:
- I hit him myself.
- They kill it themselves.
- She teaches us herself.
NOTE: There are two ways of using “YOU” in Reflexive and
Intensive Pronoun. If “YOU” is used to referto one person, we
change “YOU” to “YOURSELF”;but if “YOU” is used to referto
two or more people,we change “YOU” to “YOURSELVES”.
Example:
- You should do homework yourself, John. (we speak to John
only)
- Jason and Santa, you have to do this task yourselves. (we
speak to Jason and Santa)
6) POSSESSIVEPRONOUN

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DEFINITION: Possessive Pronoun is the pronoun that is used
to stand instead of noun and possessive adjective. They
are Mine, Ours, Theirs, Yours, His, Hers and Its.
Example:
- This car is mine.
- These books are yours.
- Those pictures are theirs.
7) DEFINITE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Definite Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
stand instead of noun and they are clear. They are This, That,
These,those and one.
Example:
- I used to do that before.
- She explains these to me.
- I send this to her
8) INDEFINITE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Indefinite Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
stand instead of noun, but they are not clear. They are Some,
Any, None, All, Someone,Everything, Many, Nobody,Other
and Few.
Example:
- None of us can swim across the sea.
- All students are good.
- Some people can sing the song beautifully.
9) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Interrogative Pronoun is the pronoun that is used
to make the question form.They are Who, Whom,Which and
What.
Example:
- Who want to meet you?
- What is in the book?
- Which do you need?
10) RELATIVE PRONOUN
DEFINITION: Relative Pronoun is the pronoun that is used to
stand instead of noun in adjective clause. They are Who,
Whom,Whose,Which, That, When, Where...
Example:
- I know a man whom you met.
- She likes the cat which is white.
- Do you know the girl that is standing over there?
11) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUN

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DEFINITION: Distributive Pronoun is the pronoun which is used
to referto only a personor a thing. For this reason they are
always singular, and they are used with singular verb. They
areEach, Either and Neither.
Example:
- Each boy gets the prize.
- Neither of the students feels bored.
- Either of teachers in NIS is unfriendly.
12) DEMONSTRATIVEPRONOUN
DEFINITION: Demonstrative Pronoun is the used to point out
something or somebodythat the listener already understood.
They are This, These,That and Those.
Example:
- This is my friends.
- These are toys.
- That is a picture.
- Those are rulers.
ADJECTIVES:-
AN ADJECTIVEISAWORD QUALIFIESA NOUNOR
PRONOUN OR ADD SOMETHING TO ITS MEANING.FOR
EXAMPLE:-ANANT IS AN INTELLIGENT PERSON.I HAVE A
BLACK AND WHITE CAT.A HUGE CROWD GATHEREDTO
HEAR THE SPEAKER.DOYOU TAKE BATH IN COLD
WATER?

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ADJECTIVESOF QUALITY:-ADJECTIVESOF QUALITY
TELLS ABOUT THE QUALITY OR CONDITION OF A
NOUN.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.ANHONEST PERSONIS
RESPECTEDEVERYWHERE.2.THIS SHOPKEEPER IS
HONEST.
ADJECTIVESOF QUANTITY:-ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY
TELLS ABOUT THE QUANTITY OF A NOUN.SUCH WORDS
ARE CALLEDADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. FOR EXAMPLE:-
1.THERE IS LITTLEMILK IN THE JUG.2.HE HAS MUCH
MONEY TO SPEND ON HIM.3.ALL THE MONEY I HAD IS
SPENT.4.HE HAS BORROWED SOME MONEY FROM ME.
ADJECTIVESOF NUMBERS:-ADJECTIVES OF NUMBERS
TELLS ABOUT THE NUMBER OF THINGS OR
PERSONS.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.I HAVE MANY FRIENDS.2.
THERE ARE FEW BOYS IN THE CLASS.3.SOME BOYS ARE
ABSENT EVEN TODAY.5.ONSEVERAL OCCASIONS,I
ADVISEDHIM TO BE CAREFUL.
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES:-DEMONSTRATIVE
ADJECTIVESARE THOSE WORDS WHICHPOINT OUT A
KINDS OF
ADJECTIVES
ADJECTIVES OF
QUALITY
ADJECTIVES
OFNUMBER
DEMONSTRATIVE
ADJECTIVE
ADJECTIVES OF
QUANTITY
DISTRIBUTIVE
ADJE CTIVES

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THING, PLACE OR A PERSON.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.THIS
BICYCLE IS MINE.2.THAT HOUSE BELONGS TO HARI.
3.THESE QUESTIONS ARE OUT OF SYALLABUS.4.THOSE
STORIESARE QUITE INTERESTING.
DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES:-DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES
WHICHINDICATE ONE THING,PERSON,TAKEN
SEPARATELYOUT OF A WHOLE GROUP OR CLASS.FOR
EXAMPLE:-1.EVERYMAN MUST DO HIS DUTY.
2.EACH STUDENT WAS AMPLY REWARDED.
Meaning of verbs
Verbs describe what a personor thing does or what is
happening. Verbs are words that give the idea of action, of
doing; something.
For example, words like run, fight,do and work, all convey
action. But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give
the idea of existence, of state, of ‘being’
For example, verbs like be, exist,seem,and belong all convey
state.
Example:
Action: Jack plays football.
State: Jack seems angry.
DifferentTypesof Verbs
 Finite Verbs
 Non-finite Verbs
 Action Verbs
 Linking Verb
 Auxiliary Verbs
 Modal Verbs

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Finite Verbs:
Finite verbs are the actual verbs which are called the roots of
sentences. It is a form of a verb that is performed by or refers to
a subject and uses one of the twelve forms of tense and
changes according to the number/personof the subject.
Example:
o Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action
in the past. This information is evident only by the verb
‘went’.)
o Robert plays hockey.
o He is playing for Australia.
o He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly
refers to the subject itself.)
Non-finite Verbs:
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as
verbs in the sentence rather they work as nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not change according to the
number/person of the subject because these verbs, also
called verbals, do not have any direct relation to the subject.
Sometimes theybecome the subjectthemselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and
participle (participles become finite verbs when they take
auxiliary verbs.)
Example:
o Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)
o Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
o I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
o Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)
Action Verbs:
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs.
Action verbs can make the listener/reader feel emotions, see
scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitiveor intransitive.
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb
demands something/someone to be acted upon.
Example:

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o I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be
painted)
o She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the
question “what is she reading?” – the answer is the object)
Intransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be
followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition, or another part of
speech.
Example:
o She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since
the action of ‘smiling’ does not fall upon anything/anyone)
o I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)
Note: {Subject + Intransitive verb} is sufficient to make a
complete sentence but {Subject + Transitive verb} is not
sufficientbecause transitive verbs demand a direct object.
Linking Verb:
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In
its simplest form, it connects the subject and the complement —
that is, the words that follow the linking verb. It creates a link
between them instead of showing action.
Often, what is on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the
complementredefines or restates the subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is,
are, was, were. However, there are some other verbs which can
work as linking verbs. Those verbs are:
Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow,
look,prove, stay,taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if
they are linking verbs, you should try replacing them with forms
of the be verbs. If the changed sentence makes sense, that
verb is a linking verb.
Example:
o She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the
game.)
o The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
o You look happy. (You are happy.)

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Auxiliary Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary
verb extends the main verb by helping to show time, tense, and
possibility.The auxiliary verbs are – be verbs, have,and do.
They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect
tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary
verbs help main verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express
negation, to provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
o Alex is going to school.
o They are walking in the park.
o I have seen a movie.
o Do you drink tea?
o Don’t waste your time.
o Please, do submit your assignments.
Modal Verbs:
A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It assists the main
verb to indicate possibility, potentiality, ability, permission,
expectation, and obligation.
The modal verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to,
shall, should, will,would.
Example:
o I may want to talk to you again.
o They must play their best game to win.
o She should call him.
o I will go there.
ADVERB:- AN ADVERB MODIFIESA VERB,ANADJECTIVE
OR AN ADVERB.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.THE BOY WALKED

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SLOWLY.2.ITIS TOO HOT OUTSIDE.3. THE LAST
BATSMENPLAYED EXTREMELYWELL.
KINDS OF ADVERBS:-
ADVERB OF TIME:-ADVERBOF TIME SHOWS AS TO
WHEN AN ACTIONTOOK PLACE.FOREXAMPLE:-1.WE
PLAY DAILY.2. PLEASE DO IT NOW.3. WE PLAY
DAILY.4.HE HAS JUST GONE OUT.5.I AM TO GO THERE
IMMEDIATELY.
ADVERB OF PLACE:-ADVERB OF PLACE SHOWS AS TO
WHERE THE ACTIONTOOK PLACE.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.HE
MOVES BACKWARD.2.LET US SIT OUTSIDE IN THE
SUN.3.HE WAS WALKING UP AND DOWN.
ADVERB OF MANNER:-ADVERB OF MANNER TELLS HOW
AN ACTIONIS PERFORMED.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.HOW WELL
HE SINGS! 2. THE STAGE IS TASTEFULLY DECORATED.
3.HE IS WORKING VERYHARD THESE DAYS.
ADVERB OF
TIME
ADVERB OF
PLACE
ADVERB OF
MANNER
ADVERB OF
DEGREEOR
INTENSITY
INTEROGATIVE
ADVERB

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ADVERB OF FREQUENCY:-THESE ADVERBEXPRESS THE
FREQUENCYOF AN ACTIONAND ANSWER THE
QUESTION:HOW OFTEN?
I ALWAYS TRY TO BE PUNCTUAL. THEY RARELYGO FOR
AN OUTING.
ADVERB OF DEGREE:-THESE ADVERBSEXPRESS THE
DEGREE OR INTENSITYOF AN ACTION.FOR EXAMPLE:-
1.THE AUDITORIUM WAS NEARLYPACKED.2.THIS TEA IS
TOO SWEET.
INTERROGATIVE ADVERB:-THESEADVERBS ARE USED
TO ASK QUESTIONS.
WHEN DID THE MATCH START? HOW DEEP IS THIS LAKE?
ADVERB OF DEGREE OR QUANTITY:- ADVERB OF
DEGREE WHICHSHOW HOW MUCH, OR IN WHAT
DEGREE OR TO WHAT EXTENT.
EXAMPLE:-1.HE WAS TOO CARELESS.2. THESE
MANGOES ARE ALMOST RIPE.3. I AM FULLY
PREPARED.4.THE SEA IS VERY STORMY.
ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION:-ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION
WHICH SHOW THE AFFIRMATION.
EXAMPLE:-1.SURELY YOU ARE MISTAKEN.2.HE
CERTAINLY WENT. 3.I DO NOT KNOW HIM.
ADVERB OF REASON:- ADVERB OF REASON WHICH
SHOW THE REASONOF HAPPENING OF THE EVENT.
EXAMPLE:-1.HE THEREFORE LEFT SCHOOL.2.HE IS
HENCE UNABLE TO REFUTE THE CHARGE.
INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS:-INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS
ARE USED FOR ASKING QUESTIONS.

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FOR EXAMPLE:-1.WHENDID YOU COME FROM
ROHTAK?2.WHEREDO YOU LIVE?3.HOW EARLYDO YOU
GET UP EVERYDAY? WHY DID YOU NOT GO THERE?
RELATIVE ADVERBS:-RELATIVE ADVERBSFUNCTION
NOT ONLY AS CONNECTIVES TO JOIN TWO CLAUSES
BUT ALSO MODIFY THE VERB IN THE PRECEDING
CLAUSE.
1) THAT IS THE FAIR PRICE SHOP.WE CAN HAVE ALL
GOODS THERE. THAT IS THE FAIR PRICE SHOP
WHERE WE CAN HAVE ALL GOODS.
2) MOHAN COULD NOT SPEAK.I DO NOT KNOW THE
REASONOF IT. I DO NOT KNOW WHY MOHAN
COULD NOT SPEAK.
CONJUNCTION:- A CONJUNCTIONOR A LINKER IS A
WORD WHICHJOINS TWO WORDS,PHRASES OR
SENTENCES TOGETHER.
KINDS OF CONJUNCTIONS:- CONJUNCTION ARE
OF THREE KINDS:-
a)CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTION:-THESE
CONJUNCTIONS JOIN TWO SIMILAR PARTS OF
SPEECH(NOUN AND NOUN,ADVERB AND
ADVERB,ADJECTIVE AND ADJECTIVE).THE OTHER
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS ARE
FOR,YET,SO,HOWEVER,NEITHER ETC.
b) CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS:-THESE
CONJUNCTIONARE USED IN PAIRS,THEYARE
RELATEDTO EACH OTHER. SUCH CONJUNCTIONS
ARE CALLEDCORRELATIVECONJUNCTIONS.
c) SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION:-THE
CONJUNCTIONUSED HERE (WHY,WHEN,WHERE)
JOIN THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE AND THE MAIN
CLAUSE.THEYARE CALLEDSUBORDINATE
CONJUNCTIONS.EXAMPLES:-
SINCE,ALTHOUGH,THOUGH,BEFORE,AFTER,TILL,UN
TIL,UNLESS,AS,BECAUSE,WHILE,IN

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CASE,WHETHER,SO THAT ,AS IF,AS SOON AS,AS
LONG AS, ETC.
USES OF CONJUNCTIONS:-CONJUNCTIONS AS WE HAVE
DEFINED,CONNECT SIMILAR WORD PHRASES AND
SENTENCES.FOR EXAMPLE:-1.JOYS AND
SORROWS(NOUN+NOUN).2.BREADAND
BUTTER(NOUN+NOUN).3.BLACK AND
WHITE(ADJECTIVE+ADJECTIVE).4.LOUDLYAND
CLEARLY.(ADVERB+ADVERB).
1.THEY WENT TO CATTLE FAIR.THEYBOUGHT A
BUFFALO.(THEYWENT TO CATTLE FAIRAND BOUGHT A
BUFFALO.2.PREMBOUGHT APEN.HE BOUGHT A
PENCIL.(PREMBOUGHT PEN AND PENCIL.)
(A) IF THE SUBJECT IS COMMON AND THERE IS
CONTINUITYIN ACTION,USED AND TO JOINTWO
SENTENCES.BUT IF THERE IS CONTRAST,USE BUT TO
CONNECT THEM.
FOR EXAMPLE:-a)HE DID HIS BEST.HE FAILED.(HE DID
HIS BEST BUT FAILED.)
i)HE DID HIS BEST BUT FAILED.
i)Mohan came to meet me.
ii)I was not at home.
iii)Mohan came to meetme but I was not at home.
B)In case of a choice or a warning,use or,otherwise.
For example:-a) Word hard.
b)You will not pass.
c)Work hard or you will not pass.

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Prepositions are the words that join a noun, pronoun or the noun
phrases and make each sentence complete. Examples:
To the office,on the table,aboutmyself,in a few minutes, at my
place,etc.
Here,‘to’, ‘on’, ‘about’,‘in’ and ‘at’ are the prepositions.
Moreover, prepositions are used in the sentences to indicate a
location, direction,time or sometimes,to introduce an object.
Some commonprepositions and their applications in the
sentences are mentioned here.
Prepositions
On :
On (refers a surface ofsomething)-I keptthe disheson the
dining table.
On (specifiesdays and dates)-I willcomeon Monday.
Radha was born on 15th August.
On (refers TV or otherdevices)-She is on the phone.
My favorite moviewillbe on TV now.
On (refers the parts of the body) — I keep wearingmy wedding
ring on my finger.
On (to refer a state)- The productsavailablein the store are on
sale.
At :
At (to indicatea place)-There are a good numberofpeopleat
the park.
At (to refer an emailaddress)-Pleasemailin detail@
(at) radha@def.com

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At (to refer a time) — Meetme at 5 p.m.tomorrow.
At (indicate one’sactivity)-Johnlaughed atmy acting inthe play.
In :
In (to indicatea location)-I am in my friend’splace now.
In (used whiledoing something)— The taglineshouldbe catchy
in marketinga product.
In (to indicateopinion,belief,feeling,etc.)- I believe in
hardworking.
In (specifyday,month,season,year) — I preferto do Maths in
the morning.
The new academic session will commencein March.
In (to indicatecolor,shapeand size) — This dress comes in four
sizes.
To :
To (to indicatethe direction,place)-The friendswentto the
restaurant.
I am headingto my college.
To (to indicaterelationship) — Do not respondto the annoying
persons.
Youransweris importantto me.
To (to indicatea limit) — The old newspapers were piledup to
the roof.
To (to refer a period) — I am here from 10 to 5.
Of :
Of (to indicaterelatingto, belongingto) — I alwaysdreamedof
beingfamous.
Of (to indicatereference) — This is a pictureof my lastbirthday.
Of (to specifythe numberor an amount) — A good numberof
people understand Hindi.
For :
For (to indicate thereasonor becauseof) — I am reallyhappy
for you.
For (to indicate theduration ortime)— I attended the session
for one yearonly.

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For (specify the use of something) — She is preparingfor her
final exam.
Rules of Preposition with Examples
Rule 1.
A prepositioncannot be followed by a verb.Verb placed
immediately after prepositionmust be in gerund form.
Examples(a) He prevented me from drinking cold water.
(b) He insist on trying again.
Rule 2.
When 'object' of the prepositionis an Interrogative Pronoun
What, Who, Whom,Which, Where etc., the prepositionusually
takes end or front position.
Examples(a) What are you thinking of ?
(b) Who were you talking to ?
It used to be thought as ungrammatical, to end a sentence with
a preposition,but it is now well accepted.

22
Rule 3.
When 'object' of the prepositionis Relative Pronoun 'that', the
prepositiontakes end position.
Examples(a) Here is the magazine that you asked for.
(b) This is the dish that she is fond of.
Rule 4.
When 'object' of the prepositionis infinitive (to + verb), the
prepositionis placed after infinitive.
Examples(a) This is a good hotel to stay at.
(b) I need a pencil to write with.
Rule 5. In some sentences,prepositionis attached with the
verb (These verbs take appropriate prepositionwith them).
Examples(a) I hate being laughed at.
(b) This I insist on.
Rule 6. In some cases the prepositioncomes in the beginning.
These are usually interrogative sentences.
Examples(a) By which train did you come?
(b) For whom was instructions given?
Use of Some ImportantPrepositions
At/In/On
Note the use of these prepositionsin referenceof 'Time'

23
i. At is used for a precise time.
ii. In is used for months, years, centuries and long periods.
iii. On is used for days and dates.
Note the use of these prepositionsin referenceof 'Place'
i. At is used for a point.
ii. In is used for an enclosed space.
iii. On is used for a surface.
At/In/To/Into
(A) At shows stationary position or existing state while In shows
movement.
Examplesi. She is at home.
ii. The train is in motion.
(B) At for small place, town etc. while In for big place, town, city,
country etc.
Examplesi. He lives at Alwar in Rajasthan.
ii. A temple is situated at Madurai in Chennai.
(C) At is used for Point of time, and In is used for Period of time.
Examplesi. The train will arrive at six in the morning.
ii. He will meet you in the morning.
(D) In/Into In shows the existing state of things, while Into
shows movement.
Examplesi. He jumped into the river.
ii. There are three students in the class.
In can also be used as an adverb; Come in = Enter. Get in (into
the train).
(E) To/Into To or Into is used as following
i. In the direction of Turn to the right.

24
ii. Destination I am going to Jaipur.
iii. Until From Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten
iv. Compared with They preferhockey to soccer.
v. With indirect objectPlease give it to me.
vi. As part of infinitive I like to ski; he wants to help.
vii. In order to We went to the store to buy soap.
viii. To the inside of We stepped into the room.
ix. Change of condition The boy changed into a man.
On/Onto
On can be used for both existing position and movement.
Example (a) He was sitting on his bag.
(b) Snow fell on the hills.
On can also be used as an adverb
Examples(a) Go on.
(b) Come on.
Onto is used when there is movement involving a change of
level.
Examples(a) People climbed onto their roofs.
(b) He lifted her onto the table.
With/By
With is used for instruments, and By is used for agents.
Examples(a) The snake was killed by him with a stick.
(b) The letter was written by Suresh with a pencil.

25
Since/For/From
Since is oftenused with Present Perfector Past PerfectTense.
Since is used for point of time and never for place, as; since 6
O'Clock/last night /last Monday/ since
morning/evening/ Monday/January/2005 etc.
Examples(a) It has been raining since two O'Clock.
(b) He had been ill since Monday.
Since can also be used as an adverb
Examples(a) He left schoolin 1983.I haven't seenhim since.
(b) It is two years since I last saw Tom.
Beside/Besides
Beside and Besideshave altogether differentmeanings.
Don't confuse beside with besides.beside= at the side of
Example
o He was sitting beside Sarla.
o besides = in addition to / as well as
Example
o He has a car besides amotor cycle.
Between/Among
Between is normally used for 'two things or persons,but it can
also be used more, when we have a definite number in mind
and there is a close relationship/ association within them.
Example
o He distributed his property between his two
sons.

26
Among is usually used for more than two persons or things
when we have no definite number in mind.
Example
o He was happy to be among friends again.
Among/Amongst
Both have the same meaning. Either of them can be used if
followed by 'the'. If followed by a word, beginning with a vowel
'amongst' be used. The use of amongst is usually found in
literary writings.
Examples
o He distributed the toffees among/amongstthe poor.
o He distributed the toffies amongstus
Interjections
An interjection is a word that expressessome kind of emotion. It
can be used as filler. Interjections do not have a grammatical
function in the sentence and are not related to the other parts of
the sentence.If an interjection is omitted, the sentence still
makes sense.It can stand alone.
 Ouch! That hurts.
 Well, I need a break.
 Wow! What a beautiful dress!
When you are expressing a strong emotion,use an exclamation
mark (!). A comma (,) can be used for a weaker emotion.
Interjections do the following:
1.Express a feeling—wow,gee, oops,darn, geez, oh:
 Oops,I’m sorry. That was my mistake.
 Geez! Do I need to do it again?
 Oh, I didn’t know that.
2.Say yes or no—yes, no, nope:

27
 Yes! I will do it!
 No, I am not going to go there.
 Nope. That’s not what I want.
3.Call attention—yo, hey:
 Yo, will you throw the ball back?
 Hey, I just wanted to talk to you about the previous
incident.
4.Indicate a pause—well, um, hmm:
 Well, what I meant was nothing like that.
 Um, here is our proposal.
 Hmm. You really need to be on a diet.
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses asudden
emotion. Interjections are used to exclaim, protestor react.
They can stand by themselves.They may also appear within
larger structures.
 Hurrah! We’ve won!
 Alas, she’s dead now.
Mild interjections are usually set off from the rest of the
sentence with a comma. More powerful interjections are
followed by an exclamation mark.
Here is a list of commoninterjections in English.
Ah
This expressioncan express ideas such as pleasure and
surprise.
 Ah! It feels good.
 Ah! I’ve passed.

28
Alas
This word expressespity or grief.
 Alas, we’ve lost.
Eh
The word eh has several meanings. It can be used to ask for
repetition or to make an enquiry.
 ‘I’m going.’ ‘Eh?’ ‘I said I’m going.’
 ‘What do you think of my new hairstyle, eh?’
‘Eh’ can also express surprise.
 ‘I’ve won.’ ‘Eh! Really?’
Hey
This word is mainly used to call attention.
 ‘Hey! Where are you going?’
Hi
This is a word used to greet people.
 ‘Hi John. How’re you?’
Hmm
This word expressesdoubtor hesitation.
 ‘Hmm. Let’s me see.’
Oh
This word expressessurprise.

29
 ‘Oh! You both know each other.’
‘Oh’ can also express pain.
 ‘Oh! I’ve got a bad headache.’
Ouch
This word mainly expresses pain.
 ‘Ouch! That hurts really badly!’
Well
This word is commonlyused to introduce a remark.
 ‘Well, how did he react?’
 ‘Well, we are not exactly interested in this.’
Definite article or Indefinite article, each of the articles has
differentuses in differentsituations.
Determiners are used with nouns to clarify the noun.
The type of determinerused depends onthe type of noun.
 Singular Nouns - always needs a determiner
 PluralNouns - the determineris optional
 UncountableNouns - the determiner is also optional
There are about 50 differentdeterminers in the English
language they include:
 Articles - a, an, the
 Demonstratives- this, that, these, those, which etc.
 Possessive Determiners - my, your, our, their, his, hers,
whose, my friend's,our friends',etc.
 Quantifiers - few, a few, many, much, each, every, some,
any etc.
 Numbers - one, two, three, twenty, forty
 Ordinals - first, second,1st 2nd,3rd, last, next, etc.

30
Article: Definition & Types
There is no doubt that articles are adjectives since they modify
the nouns after them. But articles have some special
significance as determiners. Articles determine the standard of
nouns.
There are two types of articles:
Indefinite Articles—a,an
an—used before singular count nouns beginning with a vowel
(a, e, i, o, u) or vowel sound:
 an apple, an elephant, an issue, an orange
a—used before singular count nouns beginning with
consonants (other than a, e, i, o, u):
 a stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup, a book
Definite Article—the
Can be used before singular and plural, count and non-count
nouns
1. Indefinite Article (a, an)
Used before singular nouns that are unspecified:
 a pencil
 an orange

31
Used before numbercollectives and some numbers:
 a dozen
 a gallon
Used before a singular noun followed by a restrictive modifier:
 a girl who was wearing a yellow hat
Used with nouns to form adverbial phrases of quantity, amount,
or degree:
 I felt a bit depressed.
2. Definite Article (the)
Used to indicate a noun that is definite or has been previously
specified in the context:
 Please close the door.
 I like the clothes you gave me.
Used to indicate a noun that is unique:
 Praise the Lord!
 The Columbia River is near here.
Used to designate a natural phenomenon:

32
 The nights get shorter in the summer.
 The wind is blowing so hard.
Used to referto a time period:
 I was very naïve in the past.
 This song was very popular in the 1980s.
Used to indicate all the members of a family:
 I invited the Bakers for dinner.
 This medicine was invented by the Smiths.
1. Definite Article - the
The makes the noun something particular and definite.
Example:
o Give me the ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a
particular ball about which the speaker and the listener both are
aware. There is no possibility of the ball to be anything else
rather than the speaker and the listener idea of that particular
ball.)
2. Indefinite Article - a & an
A & an - make the noun something general and indefinite.
Example:
o Give me a ball.
(Here, the speaker is telling someone to give him/her a random
ball about which the listener is not particularly aware of, and
s/he might ask ‘which/what kind of ball you want?’.)
o Give me an egg. (It can be any kind of egg – the possibility
is open.)
Rules of Using Articles

33
Published By LearnGrammar.Net
Using Indefinite Article: a & an
Rule 1:
A common noun in the singular number always requires an
article before it. But a plural common noun does not require an
article always. A plural common noun can have the article ‘the’
if we want to particularise that noun.
Example:
o I saw a snake. (Refers to a random snake)
o I saw snakes in a zoo. (No article is required)
o I have seen the snake again. (Refers to the snake I have
already seen earlier)
o I have seen the snakes again before leaving the zoo.
(Refers to the particular snakes of the zoo which I saw
earlier.)
Rule 2:
The choice between the two indefinite articles – a & an – is
determined by sound. Words beginning with consonant sounds
precede ‘a’ and words beginning with vowel sounds precede
‘an’. There are some specialcases also. For instance,
o a university, a union, a useful book, etc.
o a one-dollar note, a one-man army, etc.
o an MA, a BA, an LLB, a BSC, etc.
Rule 3:
A or an - sometimes makes a Proper Noun a Common Noun.
Proper nouns generally do not take any articles, but when a
proper noun needs to be used as a common noun, you must
bring a or an - for it.
Example:
o He thinks he is a Shakespeare. (Here, ‘Shakespeare’ does
not refer to the actual person but someone like him.)
o He seems to be an Australian. (‘Australia’ is a proper noun
but ‘Australian’ is a common noun because there is only
one Australia but a million of Australians.)
Rule 4:
Sometimes indefinite articles are used to refer the number
‘one’/’each’/’per’.

34
Example:
o I earned a thousand dollar in that job. (One thousand dollar)
o I have a car. (One car)
o It goes 50 miles an hour. (Per Hour)
Rule 5:
Indefinite articles often precede descriptive adjectives.
Example:
o He is a good boy.
o What a nice car!
Rule 6:
‘A’ sometimes comes before determiners, for example, a few, a
little, a lot of, a most, etc. but in the case of many, a or an -
comes after.
Example:
o I have a few friends coming over.
o There is a little milk in the jar.
o Many a fan welcomed
Using Definite Article: the
Rule 1:
‘The’ is used to indicate a particular person(s) or thing(s) in the
case of common nouns. Proper nouns generally do not take an
article.
Example:
o The man is running. (A particular man)
o I saw the boy stealing.
o Where is the pen I gave you last year?
o I gave him a ball, but he lost the ball. (‘a ball’ became ‘the
ball’ in the second clause because that ball was not a
random ball anymore.)
Rule 2:
Sometimes ‘the’is used to generalize a group/whole class.
Example:
o The dog is a faithful animal. (Refers to the whole species of
dog.)
o The English are industrious. (Refers to the people of
England as a nation)
o The honest are respected.(The+adjectives = plural noun)

35
o The poor are not always dishonest. (The+adjectives = plural
noun)
Rule 3:
To particularise a non-count noun ‘the’ is required before it.
Example:
o The water of the Arctic ocean is freezing.
o Please return the money I lent you last year.
Rule 4:
‘The’ is mandatory before a thing which is only one of a kind in
the universe.
Example:
o The moon is shining tonight.
o The earth is moving around the sun.
Use of ‘the’ before geographical places :
Rule 5:
Using ‘the’ with geographical nouns generally depends on the
size and plurality of the things those nouns refer to. ‘The’ is
generally used everywhere except some cases. So, it’s better to
know those exceptions first.
‘The’ must not precede:
o Names of continents: Asia, Europe, Australia, Africa, South
America, North America, Antarctica.
o Names of countries: Australia, Bolivia, England, France,
Spain, etc.
o Names of states, cities, or towns: Los Angeles, Alaska,
Sydney, London,
o Names of streets: George street, Albion Street, New town
street,
o Names of singular lakes and bays: Lake Carey, Lake Eyre,
Lake Hillier, Shark Bay,
o Names of single mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Solitary,
Mount Bindo, Mount Fuji, etc.
o Names of single islands: Easter Island, Bare Island, Bird
Island, Fatima Island,

36
o Names of languages: Spanish, Russian,
English, (When ‘the’ precedes these nouns, they refer to
the population of those languages.)
o Names of sports: cricket, football, basketball,
o Names of discipline/subject of studies: biology, history,
computer science,mathematics,
Note:
‘The’ is a widely used article in English. Except for the list
mentioned above and proper nouns, ‘the’ is used before almost
all the nouns which mean something definite/particular. The
above list has some opposite factors also. Those factors are
explained in the following list:
‘The’ must precede:
o Names of oceans, gulfs, seas, and rivers: the Pacific, the
Atlantic, the Coral Sea, the TimorSea, the Persian
Gulf,the Nile, the Murray River, the Darling River, etc.
o Names of countries with united states or islands: the United
States of America (the USA), the UK, the UAE, the
Philippines, etc.
o Names of great lakes: the Great Lakes, the African Great
Lakes
o Names of mountain ranges:the Himalayas, the Alps, the
Andes, etc.
o Names of a group of Islands: the West Indies, the
Andamans, etc.
o Determiners are words that determine or fix the Meaning
of the noun that follows.In other words, they modify
nouns. These can be divided as follows:
o
o

37
Note: No two of these words can be put before a noun side by
side. ( We can’t say-my this dog’,‘these some girls’ .) Some &
Any
“Some and any” are determiners and they express an indefinite
quantity or number. “Some and Any” are used when it is not
easy, necessaryor important to say exactly how many / how
much we want to mean. They are both used with countable and
uncountable nouns.
“Some”is often used in affirmative statements.
1. SOME + COUNTABLE NOUNS : In this case,“some” means
“ a few”.
There are some postcards in my bag.
There are some students in the class.
There are some cherries in the basket.
There are some mistakes in the list.
2. SOME + UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
There is some dust on the floor / There is some cheese in the
fridge.
There is some fruit in the basket /There is some fish on the
plate.
3. ANY + COUNTABLE NOUNS
“Any” is often used in negative sentences and questions.

38
There aren’t any people on the moon.
There aren’t any skyscrapers in our town.
There are not any empty chairs for the guests.
Are there any doctors in your family?
Yes, there are some doctors in my family.
No, there aren’t any doctors in my family.
4. ANY + UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
There isn’t any milk in the bottle / There isn’t any honey at
home.
There isn’t any cold water here / Is there any bread on the
table?
Yes, there is some bread on the table.
No, there isn’t any bread on the table.
NOTE:
In a negative sentence,we can use “no” in place of “not any”;
However, “no” can also be used with countable singular nouns.
When “no” is used, the verb is always positive.
There aren’t any wild animals in the forest.
There are no wild animals in the forest.
There isn’t any milk at home.
There is no milk at home.
Some is also used in offersand requests.
Would you like some cake?

39
Could you do some typing for me?
MUCH / MANY
Many and Much express a large quantity
Examples: (+)
I have many postcards.
She has got much influence on you.
There are many students in the class.
There is much orange juice in the glass.
Examples: (-)
There isn’t much sugar in the kitchen.
There aren’t many people in the streets.
He doesn’thave much time.
There isn’t much fun here.
Examples: (?)
Is there much rain in Istanbul?
Has Eric got much cash?
Are there many books in your bag?
Do you have many CDs?
NOTE:

40
“too much” and “too many” indicate an excess and are used in
affirmative sentences.
There is too much noise in big cities.
There are too many people at the party.
HOW MUCH / HOW MANY
We use "How many" with plural nouns.
We use "How much" with uncountable nouns.
How many eggs?
How many sisters?
How many countries?
How many apples?
How much flour?
How much butter?
How much money?
A FEW / A LITTLE
Differences Between A FEW / FEW & A LITTLE / LITTLE
“A few” expresses a small quantity. “Few” implies that
something is not many, not enough or almost none. It
expressesa negative idea.
I have a few close friends in town, and we have a very good

41
time together.
I have few friends in town, so I feel lonely from time to time.
“A little” expresses a small quantity. “Little” implies that
something is not much, not enough or almost none. It
expressesa negative idea.
We have a little milk. Let’s make a cake.
We have little milk. We can’t make a cake.
Let's go and have a drink. We've got a little time before the train
leaves. (a little time = some time, enough time to have a drink)
'Do you speak English?' 'A little.' (So we can talk a bit)
There is little sugar in my coffee.Could I have some more?
A LOT OF
Quantifier "a lot of" is used in all forms.
Instead of A lot of, we can use lots of.
Lots of is an informal form of a lot of.
Example sentences:
There are a lot of bus stops in Bornova.
I have got lots of story books.
Are there a lot of people in the queue? Yes, there are.
There is a lot of milk in the jug.
There isn’t a lot of honey in the hive.

42
Do you know a lot of people there?
She has lots of oxen on the farm.
More on Quantifiers
1-QuantifiersUsed With Singular CountNouns
 Every:You make me laugh every time you lie.
 Each: I will talk to each person individually.
 Either: Shevchenko could shoot very well with his either
foot.
 Neither: He is lucky, neither footshowed anything wrong.
2-QuantifiersUsed With PluralCountNouns
 A Few: I gave him a few candies.
 Fewer:Fewer shops acceptchecks nowadays.
 Many:They got married many years ago.
 GreatMany: Both sides had greatmany casualties in
that war.
 Several: Several buildings were damaged in the
earthquake.
 A Number of: A number of students failed the class.
 plenty of: We have plenty of hot dogs,it should be
enough.
 a lot of / lots of: I've got a lot of candies.

43
 enough: We have enoughhot dogs but we need more
buns.
 any: Did you buy any hot dogs? Yes, five of them.
 some: She needs to buy some books.
3-QuantifiersUsed With Non-CountNouns
 plenty of: We have plenty of gas, it should be enough.
 a lot of / lots of: I've got a lot of cash on me.
 enough: We have enoughgas, you don't have to worry.
 any: Did you spend any cash? No, I didn't spend any.
 some: She needs some fatherly advice.
 a little: Give me a little money before you go.
 less / more: You spend less time and lose more weight.
 much: We don't have so much water in the tank.
 a bit of: Can I have a bit of your chocolate?
o
o USE OF DETERMINERS
o The major function of these Determiners is to point out
individual things or persons but not to describethem
o Determiners are used with nouns which may be classified
as countable and uncountable.
o (a)Each and Every:Each is used for one of the two
things or one of many things. Everyone is used for one of
many things and never for two things; as,
o Each of the two men was arrested.
o Each soldierof the army was well armed.
o Every student of the class appeared in the examination.
o Note: Each and Everyonetakes a singular verb.
o (b)Either and Neither: Either has two meanings
o (i) One of the two
o (ii) Each of the two (that is both neither is the opposite of
either and it means neither the one nor the other :
o Take either half; they are exactly the same.
o You must not favour either side in the dispute I like neither
of them.

44
o (c)Some are used in affirmative sentences wit!
Uncountable and plural countable nouns:
o He has read some books.
o Some of my clothes were spoiled by the washerman.
o Some are, however, used in questions which are really
commands or requests; as,
o Will you please lend me some money?
o Do you need some Motley?
o (d)Any is generally used in Negative and Interrogative
sentences; as,
o He has not read any hooks.
o Have you read any books?
o Any is also used in affirmative sentences before plural
nouns and uncountable nouns when we refer to a quantity
of something which may or may not exist.
o You can come to any Site you want.
o Read the letter to check if there is any mistake in it.
o (e)All denotes number as well as quantity and requires a
singular verb when it is followed by an uncountable noun.
o All that glitters is not gold.
o All require a plural verb when followed by countable plural
nouns.
o All the apples are rotten.
o All students should come.
o (f)Both are used when two things or persons are involved
in the Same kind. It may followby ‘and’.
o Both the children are intelligent.
o Both of his cousins can sing well.
o Both Radha and Shona have come.
o Ritik cannot have it both ways.
o (g) Few, A few, The few: It denotes a number. Few have
a negative sense and means in ‘none’ or hard. ‘any’. A
few are used in the affirmative and means ‘some but not
many’. The few have both affirmative as well negative
sense. It means ‘not many but all of them.; as,
o He has few friends. (no friends or hardly any)
o He has a few friends. ( some)
o The few friends he has are all selfish. (small in number,
but all of them).

45
o (h) Little, A little, The little: It refers to amount or
quantity. Little means hardly any.A little means some.
The little means some but not much; as
o He has little money. (no money or hardly any)
o He has a little money (some)
o He has spent the little money he had. (a small quantity but
the whole of it)
o (i)Many and Much:Many denotes a number. It is used
before plural countable nouns.
o He has man friends to help him.
o Many stories were written by them.
o Note that ‘many a’ is followed by a singular noun and
takes a singular verb; as
o Many a person visits a great leader.
o Many a child wants to cat chocolates.
o Much denotes quantity and emphasises a large amount.
o He has muchmoney.
o She spent much time on the useless works.
o (j)Less and Fewer:Less denotesthe quantity; fewer
denotes number and are known as comparative
determiners.
o You shall take less.
o There are less than ten boys in the classroom.
o There are fewer rooms in this house.
o Note that Less is usually used beforeuncountable
nouns and fewer is used before plural nouns.
o (k)More is a comparative determiner. It is usually used
before plural and uncountable nouns with than. it is also
used to refer to an additional quantity of something
without than.
o They want more players like him.
o More of them have conic back.
o Prateek is more intelligent than Ritik.
o (m)No, None: No precedesthe noun that it qualifies
and none follows it :
o The poor boy had no money for books.
o I wanted some string but there was none in the house.
o (n) First, Foremost;First refers to the
position;foremost means the mostimportant.
o January is the first month of the year.
o Leonardo was the foremost painter of the period.

46
o (o) Same,Such: Same is used to denote identical
(unchanged,not different)thing;
o such is used to denote things or happenings of the same
kind or degree :
o We have lived in the same house for ten years.
o He is the same age as his cousin.
o I hope never to have another such experience.
o (p) Enough expressesthe quantity or quality which I am
needed and is used before uncountable nouns or plural
nouns.
o He has not enough food onthe plate.
o Aman is strong enoughto face the problem.
o There is enoughspace to play in.
o (q) Several are used for numbers which are imprecise
and that is not so large but more than two.
o He confronted the same problem several times.
o There are several reasons forhis crime.
o Several ofthe books were found damaged.
o (r) Mostexpresses nearly all of a group or amount.
o Most of the boys are good at English.
o Most of the pupils are weak.
o (s) Each other and one another: Each otheris used for
two while one another is used for more than two; as,
o The two friends helped each other.
o We should help one another in difficulties.
o (t) Another: Itis used with singular countable no to talk
about an additional personor the thing the same type.
o Could you have another cup of tea?
o COMPOUND DETERMINERS
o With “some’, ‘any’,‘no’
o Something, Somebody, Sometimes, Somewhere,
Anybody, Anyone, Anywhere, Anything, Nobody, Nothing,
Nowhere, e.g.
o Something is better than nothing.
o I sometimes have letters for him.
o Is there anyone at the door?)
o Nobody else offered to help.
o Use of Some Compound Determiners:
o Rita spends a lotof money on clothes.
o Take plenty ofwater in the summer season.

47
o He has stored a large quantityof coal for the rainy
season.
o He spends a good deal of money on medicines.
o I saw a large numberof people present in the hall.
TENSES:-Tenseis the form of a verb which shows the time and
the state of an action or event. Corresponding to three
divisions of time there are three tenses:-The presenttense
referring to thepresent time,the past referring to past time,the
Future Tense referring to the future time.Each tense has four
forms:
(i) Indefinite or Simple:-Itdoes not say anything about the
completenessof an action.It merely states an action
or event.
(ii) Continous or Progressive:-Itindicates that an action is
in progress and still incomplete.
(iii) Perfect :-It indicates that the action is complete.
(iv) Perfectcontinous:-Itindicates that the action has been
in progress.

50
Uses of Tenses
present Tense
To express what is actually happening at the presentmoment.
E.g. The teacher is teaching.
The student are learning.
To explain custom or habit.
E.g. I take tea every morning.
I go for a walk early in the morning.
He goes to the temple thrice a week.
To express general or universal truths.
E.g.The sun rises in the east.
The earth rotates round the sun.
Time and Tide wait for none.
Tense
present past future

51
To express a planned future action or a series of actions
particularly concerning a journey.
E.g. The examination begins at 9a.m. tomorrow.
We leave Panipat at 8a.m. on Monday and arrive in Delhi at 10
a.m. We stay there for two days and leave for Bombay at
11a.m. on Wednesday.We spend four days there.
5. To introduce quotations with the verb ‘say’
E.g. Keats says, “ A thing is beauty is a joy forever”.
The Bible says, “Thou shalt not steal”.
The notice says, “No parking.”
6. To express a past event in a dramatic manner.
E.g. Alexander raises his hand and salutes Porus.
Abhimanyu fights bravely but is killed in the end.
7. In running commentaries on sporting events.
E.g. Ajit passes the ball to Mohinder, Mohinder passes it Gurmit
who kicks it past the goalkeeper.
8.In exclamatory sentences beginning with ‘here’ and ‘there’.
Here comes the train!
There she goes!
There goes the bell!
Sentence Formation:-
Present Indefinite Tense:-

52
Affirmative Sentence:-Subject(Singular Third person)
+V1s/es+object.
Subject (plural, I, II and III person) +V1S/es+object.
Negative Sentence:-Subject(s)+doesnot+V1+Object.
Subject(P)+do not+ V1+object.
Interrogative Sentence:- Do/Does+Subject +V1+Object.
Present Indefinite Tense or Simple PresentTense is formed by
using the first form of the verb in the case of sentences which
are of affirmative nature.
E.g. I exercise every day.
Gunjan drinks milk every day.
PresentContinuous Tense
The Present Continuous Tense indicates an action as going on
at the time of speaking.
Rule:-Affirmative Sentence:-
Subject+is/am/are+v1+ing+object.
Negative Sentences:-
Subject+is/am/are+not+v1+ing+object.
InterrogativeSentences:-
Is/Am/Are+Subject+v1+ing+object.
In making the present continuous tense, the helping verbs
is,am,are are followed by the verb+ing.
I am reading my book.
The girl is not playing.

53
Is the girl playing?
Uses of the PresentContinuousTense.
1.It shows what is happening now,at the time of writing or
speaking.
E.g. Sita is writing a letter. Mohan is reading a book.
2.To expressan action in progressaboutthe time butnot
necessarily at the time of speaking.
E.g. They are building a new bridge on the river Yamuna.
He is writing a book on Geography.
She is teaching English at High School.
3.To expressan action which is likelyto happen in near
future.
My brother is coming next week.
I am going to delhi tomorrow.
4. To express repeated happenings.
He is always losing his things.
His son is always bringing strange guests at home.
The following verbs are not normally used in the continuous
form:
1. Verbs of senses:see,hear, smell, notice, feel, watch.
2. Verbs of emotion:want, wish, desire,refuse,forgive, care,
like, hate, dislike etc.
3.Verbsofthinking:think,feel,realize,understand,mean,suppose,b
elieve,except,forget,remember
, recollectetc.
Simple Past
Used to indicate an action completedin the past. It oftenoccurs
with adverb of

54
time. Sometimesit is used without an adverb of time.
Used for past habits.
Eg. I played footballwhen I was a child.
Rule: Subject+ V2
Eg She wrote a letter
1. Assertive Sentences –
Subject+ V2 + Object+ (.)
She wrote a letter.
2. Negative Sentences-
Subject+ didn’t + V1 + Object+ (.)
She didn’t.write a letter.
3. Interrogative Sentences-
Did + Subject+ V1 + Object + (?)
Did she write a letter?
4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-
Did + Subject+ not + V1 + Object+ (?)
Did she not write a letter?
Past Continuous Tense
Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.
e.g. I was driving a car.
Rule: was/were + ing
Subject+ was/were +V1+ ing + Object+ (.)
She was writing a letter.
Subject+ was/were + not + ing + Object+ (.)
She was not writing a letter.
Was/were + Subject+ ing+ Object + (?)
Was she writing a letter?

55
Was/were + Subject+ not + ing+ Object+ (?)
Was she not writing a letter?
Past PerfectTense
Used to describean action completed before a certain moment
in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect
is used to show the
action that took place earlier.
e.g. The patient had died before the doctorcame.
Subject+ had + V3 + Object + (.)
She had written a letter.
Subject+ had + not + Object+ (.)
She had not written a letter.
Had + Subject+ V3 + Object + (?)
Had she written a letter?
Had + Subject+ not + V3 + Object+ (?)
Had she not written a letter?
Past PerfectContinuous Tense
Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in
the past and continued
up to some time in past.
e.g. I had been learning English in this schoolfor 20 days.
Subject+ had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)
She had been writing a letter.
Subject+ had + not been + V1+ ing + Object+ (.)
She had not been writing a letter.
Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)
Had she beenwriting a letter?
Had + Subject+not+ been + V1 + ing + Object+ (?)
Had she not been writing a letter?
FUTURE TENSE

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Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the
moment of
speaking or writing is called as future tense.
For e.g- She will write a letter.
Simple Future
This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet
and will occur after
saying or in future
Rule – Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form)
In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’.
Helping verb ‘Will’
is used with all others. When you are to make a commitmentor
warn someone or
emphasize something,use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is
used with ‘I’ & ‘We’
and 'shall' is used with others.
In general speaking there is hardly any differencebetween
'shall & will' and
normally ‘Will’ is used with all.
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –
Subject+ Will/Shall + Verb (Ist form) + Object+ (.)
She will write a letter.
Subject+ Will/Shall + Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (.)
She will not write a letter.
Will/Shall + Subject+ Verb (Ist form) + Object+ (?)
Will she write a letter?
Will/Shall + Subject+ Not + Verb (Ist form) + Object + (?)
Will she not write a letter?
Future ContinuousTense
It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.
e.g. He will be distributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12
o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and
action is thought to
be continued till sometime in future.
We use the future continuous to talk about something that will
be in progress ator

57
around a time in the future.
Rule: Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing
Subject+ Will/Shall + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +
(.)
She will be writing a letter.
Subject+ Will/Shall + Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing +
Object+ (.)
She will not be writing a letter.
Will/Shall + Subject+ Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing + Object +
(?)
Will she be writing a letter?
Will/Shall + Subject+ Not + Be + Verb (Ist form) + Ing +
Object+ (?)
Will she not be writing a letter?
Future PerfectTense
It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future
and will be
completedby a certain time in future.
We use the future perfectto say that something will be finished
by a particular time
in the future.
e.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning.
Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form)
Subject+ Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object+ (.)
She will have written a letter.
Subject+ Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form)+ Object
+ (.)
She will not have written a letter.
Will/Shall + Subject+ Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object+ (?)
Will she have written a letter?

58
Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form)+ Object
+ (?)
Will she not have written a letter?
Future PerfectContinuous Tense
It is used to talk about actions that will commenceat a fix time
in future and will
Continue for some time in future.
If there is no time reference,then it is not a Future perfect
continuous tense.
Without continued time reference,such sentences are Future
Continuous Tense.
Continued time reference only differentiates betweenFuture
Continuous Tense and
Future PerfectContinuous Tense.
The future perfectprogressive emphasize the duration of an
activity that will be
in progress before another time or event in the future.
e.g. This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in
the stadium.
It is also used to talk about planned actions or actions expected
to happen.
e.g. They will be staying for a week’s
The future perfectprogressive emphasize the duration of an
activity that will be in
progress before another time or event in the future.
Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing
Subject+ Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing +
Object+ (.)
She will have been writing a letter.
Subject+ Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (Ist form) +
Ing + Object+ (.)
She will not have been writing a letter.
Will/Shall + Subject+ Have been + Verb (Ist form) + Ing +
Object+(?)
Will she have been writing a letter?
4.Interrogative NegativeSentences-

59
Will/Shall + Subject+ Have +not+been+ Verb (Ist form) +
Ing + Object +(?)
Will she have not been writing a letter?
ENGLISHGRAMMAR TENSES TABLE
SIMPLE FORMS
The action that takes place once, never or several times
TENSES EXAMPLES
Present Simple He plays a game every Sunday.
Past Simple He played a game every Sunday.
Future Simple He will / is going to play the game every Sunday.
Actions that happen oneafter another
Present Simple He plays footballand then he takes bath.
Past Simple He played a game and then he took bath.
Future Simple He will play footballand then he will take bath.
State
Present Simple He loved yoga.
Past Simple He loves yoga.
Future Simple He will love yoga.
PROGRESSIVE FORMS
Action going on at that moment
Present Continuous/ Present Progressive He is playing a game.
Past Continuous/ Past Progressive He was playing the game.
Future Continuous/ Future Progressive He will be playing a game.
Actions that are taking place at the same time

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Present Continuous/ Present
Progressive He is playing a game and she is watching.
Past Continuous/ Past Progressive
He was playing a game and she was watching
TV.
Future Continuous/ Future
Progressive
He will be playing a game and she will be
watching TV.
PERFECT FORMS
Action taking place before a certain moment in time; shows
completion/result
Present Perfect He has won two matches so far.
Past Perfect He had won two matches until that day.
Future Perfect He will have won two matches by then.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVEFORMS
Action taking place before a certain moment in time and beyond
that time, emphasizes on the duration
Present PerfectContinuous/ PresentPerfect
Progressive
He has been playing a game for ten
years.
Past PerfectContinuous/ Past Perfect
Progressive
He had been playing a game for ten
years.
Future PerfectContinuous/ Future Perfect
Progressive
He will have been playing a game for
ten years.

61
Voice is that form of a verb which tells us whether the subject
does something or has something done to it.
Example:
Active Voice: He is writing a letter.
Passive Voice: A letter is being written by him
Rules to ChangingVoice:
a) Subject should be placed in place of Objectand objectshould
be in place of Subject
b) “By” is used with a non or a pronoun for showing doer
c) We can change voice of only a transitive verb that is a verb
with an object
d) We can’t change voice of an intransitive verb that is a verb
without an object
Rules to Change ofverb:-
Tense Verb in Active Voice Verb in Passive
Voice
Present Indefinite Verb + s, es, ies Is / are / am + PP
verb
Past Indefinite Past Verb Was / Were + PP
verb
Future Indefinite Shall will + verb Shall / will +be + PP
verb
Present Continuous Is / are / am + Verb +
ing
Is / are /am being +
PP verb)
Past Continuous Was /were + PP verb
+ ing
Was /were + being +
PP verb
Present Perfect Has + Have + PP
verb
Has + have + been +
PP verb
Future Perfect Shall / Will + Have + Shall/Will+hav

62
PP verb +been +PP verb
Active and passive voice, worksheets, rules, examples
(PDF)
Active and passivevoice with tenses
Simple Present Tense
is,am,are+3rd
verb
Active Voice Passive Voice
He lights the candle. The candle is lighted by him.
He does not light the candle. The candle is not lighted by him.
Do you eat meat? Is meat eaten by you?
Present Continuous Tense
is,am,are+being+3rd
verb
I am driving a car. A car is being driven by me.

63
I am not driving a car. A car is not being driven by me.
Am I driving a car? Is a car being driven by me?
Present Perfect Tense
has,have+been+3rd
verb
She has stolen my book. My book has been stolen by her.
She has not stolen my book. My book has not been stolen by her.
Has she stolen my book? Has my bookbeen stolen by her?
Simple Past Tense
was,were+3rd
verb
She finished work. Work was finished by her.
She did not finish work. Work was not finished by her.
Did she finish work? Was work finished by her?

64
Past Continuous Tense
was,were+being+3rd
verb
He was revisinghis books. His books were being revised byhim.
He was not revising his books.
His books were not being revised by
him.
Was he revisinghis books? Were his books being revised byhim?
Past Perfect Tense
had+been+3rd
verb
I had completedthe assignment.
The assignment had been completed by
me.
I had not completed the assignment.
The assignment had not been
completed byme.
Had I completedthe assignment?
Had the assignment been completed by
me?
Simple Future Tense

65
will,shall+be+3rd
verb
My uncle will pay my tuition fee. My tuition fee will be paid by my uncle.
My uncle will not pay my tuition fee.
My tuition fee will not be paid by my
uncle.
Will my uncle pay my tuition fee? Will my tuition fee be paid by my uncle?
Future Perfect Tense
will, shall+ have been+3rd
verb
We shall have done our home-work.
Our home -work shall have been done by
us.
We shall not have done our home-
work.
Our home -work shall not have been
done by us.
Shall We have done our home –
work?
Shall our home -work have been done by
us?
Note: In Present perfect continuous tense, Past perfect
continuous tense, Future perfect continuous tense, Future
perfect tense, we use the same sentence in passive voice. It
means these tense cannot be changed in passive form.

66
Active and passivevoice with modals (What is a Modal?)
Modals
Auxiliary Verb in
Passive Voice
Can/ Could
Can/Could+ be+
3rd
verb
I can solve these sums.
These sums can
be solved by me.
I cannotsolve these
sums.
These
sums cannotbe
solved by me.
Can I solve these sums?
Can these
sums be
solved by me?
Has to/ Have to
Has to/ Have
to+3rd
verb
He has to complete his
assignment.
His assignment
has to be
completedby
him?
Must Must+3rd
verb You must learn this book.
This book must
be learnt by you.
May may+be+3rd
verb I may buy the book.
The book may be
boughtby me.
Might might+ be+ 3rd
Verb They might play chess.
Chess might be
played by them.

67
Should
should+
be+3rd
verb
Students should learn all
lessons.
All
lessons should
be learnt by
students.
Active and passive voicewith Imperative Sentences
These are the sentences in which we express our feeling and
emotions like command, order, advice, and request.
Shut the door. Let the door be shut.
Post the letter at once. Let the letter be posted at once.
Always speak the truth. Let the truth always be spoken.
Do not starve the cow. Let the cow not be starved.
Let him help his brother. Let his brother be helped by him.
Clean your room. Let your room be cleaned.
Learn your lesson. Let your lessonbe learnt.
Please do me a favor tonight
You are requestedto do me a favor
tonight.

68
Rules
1. Lets + new object+ be/Not be +past participle or 3rd
form.
2. For sentences containing, Request, advice and order, we will
use you are Requested to,advisedto and orderedto .
Note: Always remove please and kind if they are given in the
sentence.
To make passive voice, first of all you have to use following
rules.
Get out of my house.
You are orderedto get out of mu
house.
Kindly do not smoke in public place.
You are requestednotto smoke in
public place
me I
You You
her She
them They
us We
him He

69
1.Change the object into subject. If in object, we have a
pronoun (What is a Pronoun?) of object case convert that by
following rules.
2. Change the subject into object. And use by before the
object. If in subject, we have a pronoun of nominative case
convert that by the following rules.
I by me
You by you
She by her
They by them
We by us
He by him
It by it
Who by whom
Some basic rules of active voice and voice are given below
it It
whom Who

70
 First of all, find subject, object and the main verb it means find
SVO .
 Convert the objectinto subject.
 Use the suitable helping verb or auxiliary verb according to the
tense. If helping verb is given, use verb as it is. But note that the
helping verb used should be according to the object.
 Convert the verb into past participle or 3rd
form of the verb.
 Use the preposition(what is preposition?)“by”.
 Convert the subjectinto object.
Examples: Present
a) You do not tell a lie (Active Voice)
A lie is not told by you (passive voice)
b) I eat a mango (active voice)
A mango is eaten by me (passive)
Examples: Past
a) He wrote a letter (active Voice)
A letter was written by him (Passive Voice)
b) You did not take tea (Active Voice)
Tea was not Taken by you (Passive Voice)
Examples: Future
a) I shall take tea (Active Voice)
Tea will be taken by me (Passive voice)
b) She will sing a song (Active Voice)
A song will be sung by her (Passive Voice)
Examples: PresentContinues
a) He is driving a car (Active Voice)
A car is being driven by him (Passive Voice)
b) I am writing a letter (Active Voice)
A letter is being written by me (Passive Voice)
Examples: PastContinues
a) She was offering prayers (Active Voice)
Prayers were being offeredby her (Passive Voice)
b) What were you doing? (Active Voice)
What was being done by you? (Passive Voice)
Examples: PresentPerfect
a) I have bought two pens (Active Voice)
Two pens have been bought by me (Passive Voice)
b) He has posted the letter (Active Voice)

71
The letter has been posted by him (Passive Voice)
Examples: PastPerfect
a) I had taken food (Active Voice)
Food had been taken by me (Passive Voice)
b) Had he broken your pen? (Active Voice)
Had your pen been broken by him? (Passive Voice)
Example:Future Perfect
a) I shall have finished the work (Active Voice)
The work will have been finished by me (Passive Voice)
b) He will have posted the letter (Active Voice)
NARRATION PART-2 ( DirectSpeech / Quoted Speech)
Saying or quoting exactly what someone has said is called
direct speech(sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a personsays appears within quotation marks (“…”)
and should be word for word.
 She said, “Today’s lessonis about directand indirect
speech.” or
 “Today’s lessonis about directand indirect speech.”, she
said.
IndirectSpeech/ Reported Speech
Saying or reporting what someone said without quoting his
exact words is called indirect speech.
Here we don’t use quotation marks to enclose what the person
said and does not have to be word for word.
 He said that yesterday’s lesson was about direct and
indirect speech.
Reporting Verb
The verb in the first part of sentence (i.e. say, said, tell, admit,
complain, explain remind, reply think, hope, offer,refuse etc.)
before the statement of a personin sentence is called reporting
verb.
How to Change DirectSpeech into IndirectSpeech?
Rule 1. (Adverbs of Time and Place)
If the reported sentence contains an expressionof time, you
must change it to fit in with the time of reporting, and adverb of
nearness should be put into those of distance.
 Today => yesterday/ that day
 This evening => that evening

72
 These (days) => those (days)
 Now => then
 (A week) ago => (a week) before
 Last weekend => the previous weekend
 Here => there
 Here after => there after
 Next (week) => the following (week)/ a week after
 Tomorrow => the next/following day
 Thus => so
 Last night => the previous night
 Yesterday => the day before / the previous day
 Hither => thither
 Hence => thence
Note: If something is said and reported at the same time, then
the time expressioncan remain the same.
 She told me today, “ I will go to Delhi tomorrow.”
 She told me today he would go to Delhi tomorrow.
 He told me this week, “ we gave our exam last week.”
 He told me this week, they had given their exam last week.
Rule 2. Tenses
A) If the reporting verb is in present or future (i.e say,says or
will say) then don’t change the tense that you can find within
the quotation marks.
 She says,”I was a fool then.”
 She says that she was a fool then.
 I will say, “ He loves his mom.”
 I will say that he loves his mom.
B) If reporting verb is in the past tense. the tense of the verbs in
the reported speechor indirect speechmust be generally
changed. This is because when we use reported speech, we
are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously
the personwho spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs
therefore usually have to be in the past too.
 He said,”I am going to the cinema.”
 He said he was going to the cinema.
TenseChange
As a rule when you report something someone has said you go
back a tense.
PresentSimple › Pastsimple
 She said, ”it is cold,”
 She said it was cold.

73
Presentcontinuous ›Past continuous
 She said, “I’m teaching English online.”
 She said she was teaching English online.
Presentperfect› Pastperfect
 She said, “I’ve lived in Pakistan since 1999.”
 She said she had lived in Pakistan since 1999.
Presentperfectcontinuous › Past perfectcontinuous
 He said, “I’ve been teaching English for ten years.”
 He said she had been teaching English for ten years.
Past simple › Past perfect
 He said, “I taught direct speechand indirect speech
yesterday.”
 He said she had taught direct speechand indirect speech
yesterday.
Past continuous› Past perfectcontinuous
 She said, “I was teaching the lesson.”
 She said she had beenteaching the lesson.
Past perfect› Pastperfect
 He said, “The lessonhad already started when she
arrived.”
 NO CHANGE – he said the lesson had already started
when she arrived.
Past perfectcontinuous › Pastperfectcontinuous
 She said, “I’d already beenteaching for five minutes.”
 NO CHANGE – She said she’d already been teaching for
five minutes.
Modalverb forms also sometimeschange:
Will › would
 She said, “I’ll teach English online tomorrow.”
 She said she would teach English online tomorrow.
Can › could
 She said, “I can teach English online.”
 She said she could teach English online.
Must› had to
 She said, “I must have a computerto teach English online.”
 She said she had to have a computerto teach English
online.
Shall › › should/would
 She said, “What shall we learn today?”
 She asked what we should learn today.
 He said, ”I shall appreciate it.”

74
 He said he would appreciate it.
May › might
 She said, “May I open a new browser?”
 She asked if she might open a new browser.
Note – There is no change to; could, would, should, might and
ought to.
 “I might go to the cinema”, he said.
 He said he might go to the cinema.
Rule 3. (After wish, would rather,had better , it is time)
 Rahimsaid, ”I wish they were in Pakistan.”
 Rahim said he wished they were in Pakistan.
 Raju said, “ I would rather fly.”
 Raju said he would rather fly.
 Zubeda said, ” they had better go.”
 Zubeda said they had better go.
 Ali said, “Itis time I got up.”
 Ali said it was time he got up.
Rule 4.
If indirect speechthe words within quotation marks talk of a
universal truth or habitual action or when a sentence is made
and reported at the same time and the fact is still true then the
tense inside the quotation marks is not changed at all.
 He said,”My name is Ali.”
 He said his name was Ali
 The teacher said,” the sun rises in the east.”
 The teacher said that the sun rises in the east.
 Roopa said, “ I am thirsty.”
 Roopasaid she was thirsty.
Rule 5.
You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a
future event.
 She said,”next week’s lessonis on reported speech.”
 She said next week’s lessonwill be on reported speech.
Rule 6. (Pronouns)
We have to change the pronouns to keep the same meaning of
a sentence.
 Dhoni said, “We are the best players.”
 Dhoni said they were the bestplayers.
Note: Sometimes we have to use a noun instead of a pronoun,
otherwise the new sentence is confusing consider the examples
below:

75
The culprit said, “He killed them.”
 The culprit said that the man had killed them.
(If we only make mechanical changes, then the new sentence
can have different meaning)
 The culprit said he had killed them. (Mohammad himself
killed them)
Rule 7. Reported SpeechIn If-Clauses.
 Hussain: “If I tidied my room, my dad would be happy.”
 Hussain said that if he tidied his room, his dad would be
happy.
 Teacher: “If you concentrate, you will learn about direct and
indirect speech.”
 Teacher said if we concentrate we would learn about direct
and indirect speech.
Rule 8. Reported Speechof Time-Clauses.
 Ali: “WhenI was staying in Quetta I met my best friend.” –
 He said that when he was staying in Quetta he met his best
friend.
Rule 9. Reported Speechof InterrogativeSentences
1. Remove the quotation marks and question mark in the
interrogative sentence.
2. Use ‘if’ or ‘whether’ if the sentence inside the quotation marks
begins with a helping verb (Auxiliary verb).
3. Use the given interrogative word (what, when, where, why,
who, whom, whose, which, now etc.) if it does not begin with the
helping verb.
4. Don‘t use ‘that’
5. Changing the reporting verb (say, said) into ‘ask, want to
know wonder or inquire’ in its correct tense.
6. Omit helping verb like ‘do, does, did’. But don’t omit them
when they are with ‘not’.
 Said I to my teacher,” won’t you help me to learn about
direct and indirect speechcomplete rules?”
 I asked my teacher if he would not help me to learn about
direct and indirect speechcomplete rules.
 “ How often do you go to the cinema?” Ali said to Ahmed,
 Ali asked Ahmed how often he went to the cinema.
 “Where have you been?” he said.
 He asked me where I had been.
 “What time did it start?” he said.
 He wanted to know what time it had started.

76
 “Why won’t he do it?” she said.
 She wondered why he wouldn’t do it.
Rule 10. Reported Speech ofYes/No Questions
In yes/no questions we use if or whether in questions. If is more
commonand whether is more formal.
 “Willyou go?” she asked me.
 She asked me if/whether I would go.
 “Did he buy a car?” she said.
 She wondered if/whether he had bought a car.
Rule 11. Reported Speech ofCommandsand Requests
1. Remove the quotation mark in an Imperative sentence.
2. Use ‘to’ if it is an affirmative sentence. (without don‘t)
3. Use ‘not to’ if the sentence begins without Don‘t.
4. Don‘t use ‘that’
5. Omit the word ‘please’. Use the word ‘request’ instead of
‘say’.
6. If the direct speechcontains a request or a command, the
reporting verb (say, said) change to tell, request, order,
command etc. in its correct tense.
7. The commands, requests and advice mostly have the same
form in English: verb + object+ infinitive (advise, ask, beg,
forbid,order, persuade, recommend, tell, urge, warn etc.).
 “Get up!” he said.
 He warned me to get up.
 “Please, revise for the test,” he said.
 He requested me to revise for the test.
 “Bring me a cup of tea” said sunita to komal .
 Sunita asked komal to bring her a cup of tea.
Negative: + object + not + infinitive.
 “Don’t hesitate,” he said.
 He persuaded me not to hesitate.
 “Don’t smoke,” the doctorwarned my father.
 The doctorwarned my father not to smoke.
Rule 12. Reported Speech of Advice
If it contains advice the reporting verb changes into advised.
 “Put on your coat,” I said.
 I advised him to put on his coat.
Rule 13. Reported Speech ofExclamatory Sentences
1. Change the exclamatory sentence into statement or assertive
2. Remove the quotation marks and exclamatory mark.
3. Use the conjunction ‘that’

77
4. Omit the interjections such as Oh, O, Alas, how, what,
hurrah.
5. Add the word ‘very’ to the adjective or adverb if necessary.
6. If the verb is not given, use ‘Be’ form verb (is, was, are, were,
am) in its correcttense according to the subject.
7. Change the reporting verb (say, said) to ‘exclaim joyfully’
8. Use ‘exclaim’ sorrowfully for sorrowful incidents.
 She said ,” Wow, What a beautiful car that is!”
 She exclaimed joyfully that was a verb beautiful car.
 He said,” Alas! I have missed the paper.”
 He exclaimed sorrowfully that he had missed the paper.
Rule 14. Use of ‘That’in Reported Speech
In reported speech, the word that is often used, however it is
optional. We recommend you no to use it because in some
cases we don’t use ‘That’ in reported speechlike: question,
command request and order, so its better not to use it.
 He told me that he lived in Hazara Town.
 He told me he lived in Hazara Town.
Rule 15. Punctuation in DirectSpeech
In direct speech, various punctuation conventions are used to
separate the quoted words from the rest of the text: this allows
a reader to followwhat’s going on. Here are the basic rules:
A)We use inverted commas (also called quotation marks,
quotes or speechmarks) to indicate direct speech. Double
quotes (“) are preferred in American English, while single
quotes (‘) are more commonin British English:
 “I’m coming home late tonight,” she said. (American
English)
 ‘I’m coming home late tonight,’ she said. (British English)
B) Every time a new speakers says something, you should start
a new paragraph:
 “They think it’s a more respectable job,”said Ali.
 “I don’t agree,” I replied.
C) There should be a comma,full stop, question mark, or
exclamation mark at the end of a piece of speech. This is
placed inside the closing inverted comma or commas.
 He asked, “ Can I go outside?”
 She shouted, “ Sit down!”
 We said, “ They are wrong.”
D) If the directspeechis broken up by information about who is
speaking, you need a comma(or a question mark or

78
exclamation mark) to end the first piece of speechand a full
stop or another commabefore the second piece (before the
inverted commaor commas):
 “You’re right,” he said. “It feels strange.”
 “Thinking back,” she said, “he didn’t expect to win.”
 “No!” he cried. “You can’t leave now!”
Change inTense ofReported Speechfor all TENSES:
PresentSimple Change In To PastSimple
Directspeech
PRESENT SIMPLE
He said, “I write a book”
He said, “she goes to schooldaily”
They said, “we love our country”
He said, “he does not like computer”
Indirectspeech
PAST SIMPLE
He said that he wrote a book.
she said that he went to school daily.
They said that they loved their country.
He said that he did not like computer.
PresentContinuous ChangeIn To Past Continuous
Directspeech
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
He said, “he is listening to the music”
She said, “I am washing my clothes”
They said, “we are enjoying the weather”
She said, “I am not laughing”

79
Indirectspeech
PAST CONTINUOUS
He said that he was listening to the music.
She said that she was washing her clothes.
They said that they were not enjoying the weather.
She said that she was not laughing.
PresentPerfectChange In To PastPerfect
Directspeech
PRESENT PERFECT
He said, “I have started a job”
I said, “she have eaten the meal”
They said, “we have not gone to New York.
Indirectspeech
PAST PERFECT
I said that she had eaten the meal.
I said that she had eaten the meal.
They said that they had not gone to New York.
PresentPerfectContinuousChange In To PastPerfect
Continuous
Directspeech
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said, “I have been studying since 3 O’clock”
She said, “It has been raining for three days”
I said “She has beenworking in this office since 2005”
Indirectspeech
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

80
He said that he had been studying since 3 O’clock.
She said that it beenraining for three days.
I said that she had been working in this office since 2005.
PAST TENSE
Past Simple Change in To PastPerfect
Directspeech
PAST SIMPLE
John said, “they went to cinema”
He said, “I made a table”
She said, “I didn’t buy a car”
Indirectspeech
PAST PERFECT
John said that they had gone to cinema.
He said that he had made a table.
She said that she had not bought a car.
Past Continuous Changein To Past PerfectContinuous
Directspeech
PAST CONTINUOUS
He said to me, “ I was waiting for you”
I said, “It was raining”
She said, “I was not laughing”
Indirectspeech
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said to me that he had been waiting for me.
I said that it had been raining.
She said that she not beenlaughing.
NOTE : Past perfecttense cannotchange into pastperfect.
FUTURE TENSE

81
Future simple tense,will changes into would
Directspeech
WILL
She said, “I will buy a computer”
They said to me, “we will send you gifts”
I said, “I will not take the exam”
Indirectspeech
WOULD
She said that she would buy a computer.
They said to me that they would send you gifts.
I said that I would not take the exam.
Future continuoustense,will be changesinto would be
Directspeech
WILL BE
She said,” I will be shifting to new home”
She said,” I will be shifting to new home”
He said, “I will be working hard”
He said, “he will not be flying kite”
Indirectspeech
WOULD BE
She said that she would be shifting to a new home.
He said that he would be working hard.
She said that he would not be flying kites.
Future PerfectTense Will Have Change In To Would Have
Directspeech
WILL HAVE

82
He said, “I will have finished the work”
She said, “they will have passed the examination”
He said, “I will have gone”
Indirectspeech
He said that he would have finished the work
She said that they would have passed the examination.
He said that he would have gone.
.

83
SYNONYMS, ANTONYMS, POLYSEMY,
HOMONYM, AND HOMOGRAPH
1. Synonyms
1.1. Definition of Synonyms
Synonyms are words with the same or similar meanings.
Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and
the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word
comes from Ancient Greek syn (σύν) ("with") and onoma
(ὄνομα) ("name"). In the figurative sense, two words are
often said to be synonymous if they have the same
connotation. Synonyms can be any part of speech (such as
nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long
as both words are the same part of speech.
1.2. Examplesof Synonyms
1. About/Approximately
2. Above/Over
3. Abstract/Summary
4. Alike/Same
5. All/Every
6. Almost/Nearly
7. Animated/Lively
8. Anyway/Besides
Angry/Mad
9. Apparent/Obvious
10. Applicable/Relevant
11. Appreciable/Considera
ble
12. Ardour/Passion
13. Arise/Occur
14. Aromatic/Fragrant
15. Association/Organizati
on
16. Attractive/Appealing
17. Away/Absent
18. Awful/Terrible
19. Begin/Start

84
20. Bucket/Pail
21. Bunny/Rabbit
22. Carefree -
Lighthearted
23. Center/Middle
24. Chair/Seat
25. Chef/Cook
26. Children/Kids
27. Choose/Pick
28. Clever/Smart
29. Cold/Icy
30. Come/Arrive
31. Cool/Chilly
32. Couch/Sofa
33. Crash/Accident
34. Crate/Box
35. Cruel - Mean
36. Cut/Clip
37. Cry/Sob
38. Damp/Wet
39. Decorate - Adorn,
Embellish
40. Dresser- Bureau
41. Droop - Sag, Hang
Down
42. Enemy/Foe
43. Enjoy/Like
44. Error/Mistake
45. Evil/Bad
46. Exact - Precise
47. Exit/Leave
48. Face - Confront
49. Face - Visage
50. Factual - True
51. Fad - Craze, Trend
52. Faint - Indistinct Vague
53. Faint - Pass Out
54. False/Untrue
55. Fast/Quick
56. Father/Dad
57. Fight/Battle
58. Filthy/Dirty
59. Fire/Flame
60. Flourish - Thrive
61. Flower/Blossom
62. Friend/Pal
63. Funny/Silly
64. Garbage/Trash
65. Get/Receive
66. Grand, Magnificent
67. Happy/Glad
68. Hard/Difficult
69. Harm/Hurt
70. Hat/Cap
71. Hope/Wish
72. House/Home

85
73. Hurry/Rush
74. Ill/Sick
75. Infant/Baby
76. Jog/Run
77. Kind/Nice
78. Large/Big
79. Late/Tardy
80. Laugh/Giggle
81. Lead/Guide
82. Leap/Jump
83. License - Permit
84. Lid/Cover
85. Lifeless -Dead
86. Lifelike - Realistic
87. Likely - Probable
88. Limit - Restrict
89. Limp - Flaccid
90. Linger - Stay, Wait
91. Lingo - Jargon
92. Listen/Hear
93. Locate,Find
94. Loud/Noisy
95. Love/Adore
96. Mother/Mom
97. Near/Close
98. Ocean - Sea
99. Often, Frequently
100. Own/Possess
101. Paste/Glue
102. Permit/Allow
103. Plate/Dish
104. Poor/Needy
105. Present/Gift
106. Pull/Tug
107. Quiet/Silent
108. Quiver - Shake
109. Raise/Lift
110. Reply/Answer
111. Rest/Relax
112. Rich/Wealthy
113. Risque - Tasteless
114. Robber/Thief
115. Rubbish, Garbage,
Trash
116. Rug/Carpet
117. Sack/Bag
118. Sad/Unhappy
119. Save/Keep
120. See/Look
121. Selfish/Greedy
122. Shack/Hut
123. Ship/Boat
124. Shop/Store
125. Shout/Yell
126. Shove/Push
127. Shut/Close

86
128. Sleep/Snooze
129. Small/Tiny
130. Smell/Odor
131. Smile/Grin
132. Sniff/Smell
133. Song/Tune
134. Speak/Talk
135. Stone/Rock
136. Stop/Cease
137. Strange/Odd
138. Street/Road
139. Tailored/Tailor-Made
140. Taxi/Cab
141. Teach/Tutor
142. Temper/Mood
143. Terror/Terrorism
144. Testament/Testomony
145. Throw/Toss
146. Tired/Sleepy
147. To transform/To
convert
148. Today/Nowadays
149. Torpid/Lethargic
150. Touchdown/Landing
151. Touchy/Sensitive
152. Transitority/Temporary
153. Transparent/Obvious
154. Trustworthy/Reliable
155. Ultimate/Final
156. Uncared/For
Neglected
157. Uncommon/Unusual
158. Uncooked/Raw
159. Undeniable/Indisputabl
e
160. Unforeseen/Unexpecte
d
161. Unfortunate/Unlucky
162. Unhurt/Unharmed
163. Uninjured/Unhurt
164. Unlawful/Illegal
165. Unmarried/Single
2. Antonyms
2.1. Definition of Antonyms
An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning as
another word. It refers to a word that is completely
differentfrom another.They also are called opposites.
2.2. Examplesof Antonyms

87
1. Absent - Present
2. Abundant - Scarce
3. Accept - Decline,
Refuse
4. Accurate - Inaccurate
5. Admit - Deny
6. Advantage -
Disadvantage
7. Against - For
8. Agree - Disagree
9. Alive - Dead
10. All - None, Nothing
11. Ally - Enemy
12. Always - Never
13. Ancient - Modern
14. Answer - Question
15. Antonym - Synonym
16. Apart - Together
17. Appear-Disappear,
Vanish
18. Approve - Disapprove
19. Arrive – Depart
20. Artificial - Natural
21. Ascend - Descend
22. Attic - Cellar
23. Attractive - Repulsive
24. Awake - Asleep
25. Backward - Forward
26. Bad - Good
27. Beautiful - Ugly
28. Before - After
29. Begin - End
30. Below - Above
31. Bent - Straight
32. Best - Worst
33. Better - Worse,Worst
34. Big - Little, Small
35. Bitter - Sweet
36. Black - White
37. Blame - Praise
38. Bless - Curse
39. Bold - Meek, Timid
40. Borrow - Lend
41. Borrow - Lend
42. Bottom - Top
43. Bound - Unbound,
Free
44. Boundless - Limited
45. Boy - Girl
46. Brave - Cowardly
47. Bright - Dim, Dull
48. Brighten - Fade
49. Broad - Narrow
50. Build - Destroy
51. Calm - Windy,
Troubled

88
52. Can - Cannot, Can't
53. Capable - Incapable
54. Captive - Free
55. Careful - Careless
56. Cheap - Expensive
57. Cheerful - Sad,
Discouraged,Dreary
58. Clear - Cloudy,
Opaque
59. Clever - Stupid
60. Clockwise -
Counterclockwise
61. Close - Far, Distant
62. Closed - Ajar, Open
63. Clumsy - Graceful
64. Cold - Hot
65. Combine - Separate
66. Come - Go
67. Comfort- Discomfort
68. Common- Rare
69. Compulsory-Voluntary
70. Contract - Expand
71. Cool - Warm
72. Correct - Incorrect,
Wrong
73. Courteous-
Discourteous,Rude
74. Create - Destroy
75. Crooked - Straight
76. Cruel - Kind
77. Dangerous - Safe
78. Dark - Light
79. Day - Night
80. Decrease - Increase
81. Deep - Shallow
82. Definite - Indefinite
83. Demand - Supply
84. Despair - Hope
85. Discourage -
Encourage
86. Down - Up
87. Downwards - Upwards
88. Dreary - Cheerful
89. Dry - Moist, Wet
90. Early - Late
91. East - West
92. Easy - Hard, Difficult
93. Empty - Full
94. Encourage -
Discourage
95. Enter - Exit
96. Even - Odd
97. Export - Import
98. Exterior - Interior
99. External - Internal
100. Fail - Succeed

89
101. False - True
102. Far - Near
103. Fast - Slow
104. Fat - Thin
105. Feeble - Strong,
Powerful
106. Few - Many
107. Find - Lose
108. First - Last
109. Float - Sink
110. Fold - Unfold
111. Foolish- Wise
112. Forget- Remember
113. Fortunate -
Unfortunate
114. Found - Lost
115. Frequent - Seldom
116. Fresh - Stale
117. Generous - Stingy
118. Gentle - Rough
119. Give - Receive,Take
120. Glad - Sad, Sorry
121. Go - Stop
122. Great-Tiny,
123. Grow - Shrink
124. Happy - Sad
125. Harmful - Harmless
126. Harsh - Mild
127. Hate - Love
128. Heaven - Hell
129. Heavy - Light
130. Help - Hinder
131. Here - There
132. Hero - Coward
133. High - Low
134. Hill - Valley
135. Hinder - Help
136. Honest - Dishonest
137. Horizontal - Vertical
138. Humble - Proud
139. Immense - Tiny, Small
140. Important - Trivial
141. In - Out
142. Include - Exclude
143. Increase - Decrease
144. Inferior- Superior
145. Inhale - Exhale
146. Inner - Outer
147. Inside - Outside
148. Internal - External
149. Join - Separate
150. Junior – Senior
151. Known - Unknown
152. Landlord - Tenant
153. Large - Small

90
154. Lawful - Unlawful,
Illegal
155. Left- Right
156. Left– Right
157. Lengthen - Shorten
158. Lenient - Strict
159. Less - More
160. Like - Dislike, Hate
161. Likely - Unlikely
162. Long - Short
163. Loose - Tight
164. Loss - Win
165. Major - Minor
166. Mature - Immature
167. Maximum - Minimum
168. Merry - Sad
169. Minor - Major
170. Minority - Majority
171. Miser - Spendthrift
172. Misunderstand-
Understand
173. Nadir - Zenith
174. Narrow - Wide
175. Never - Always
3. Polysemy
3.1. Definition of Polysemy
Polysemy (pron.: /pəˈlɪsɨmi/ or /ˈpɒlɨsiːmi/ from Greek:,
poly-, "many" and sêma, "sign") is the capacity for a sign
(e.g., a word, phrase, etc.) or signs to have multiple
related meanings. A polyseme is a word or phrase with
different,but related senses.
3.2. Examplesof Polisemy
1. Accept - Take willingly, receive as suitable, agree, admit
(responsibility), to believe that something is true etc etc.
2. Aggregation – 1) Coming together, 2) Result of coming
together; those who come together

91
3. Bed – 1) Something sleepers lie upon , 2) What a
stream lies on
4. Bolt – means “to lock”, “not to move”, while at the same
time it may be interpreted as “moving very quickly”.
5. Book – 1) A bound collection of page, 2) A text
reproduced and distributed (thus, someone who has read
the same text on a computer has read the same book as
someone who had the actual paper volume)
6. Box - A type of tree, a container, a seating area, and to
fight with fists.
7. Butt – 1) Part of a cigarette, 2) your rear-end.
8. Center – 1) of or belonging to neither the right nor the left
politically or intellectually, 2) an area that is approximately
central within some larger region (“it is in the center of
town”)
9. Count – To say the numbers in the right order, to
calculate, include,, consider, (n) total, saying
numbers,measurementetc.
10.Court – 1) Seek favor, 2) Assembly of those seeking
favor; the presidentof the court ("judge")
11.Crane – 1) A bird, 2) A type of construction equipment, 3)
To strain out one's neck.
12.Delegation – 1) Granting authority to another. 2) Those to
whom authority has been granted
13.Express – 1)verb: to put something into words, push out,
squeeze out. 2) adjective: fast, such as an express train,
express mail.

92
14.Face – 1) The front of the human head from the forehead
to the chin and ear to ear (he washed his face), 2) Deal
with (something unpleasant) head on (He faced the
terrible consequences of his mistakes)
15.Fair – 1) Adjective. Meaning lovely or beautiful. 2) Noun.
Meaning a gathering of people to sell and barter goods, or
to enjoy entertainment
16.Fast – can be interpreted as “staying still” and “moving
quickly”.
17.Firm – 1) adjective: secure, solid. 2) noun: a business
organisation, a company
18.Fix. It has many meanings such as 1.attach, 2.Arrange
3.Get ready (food or drinks) 4.repair 5. punish, 6.set right
(the hair).
19.Fleet – 1) Group of vehicles, 2) Swift.
20.Foot – 1) The part of the leg of a human being below the
ankle joint 2) pay for something pick (“footthe bill”)
21.Funny - Amusing, Strange, suspicious / illegal, crazy,
entertaining, witty, humorous, comic,hilarious.
22.Head - 1) Part of the body above neck, 2) Person in
charge of an organisation
23.Hospital – 1) Activity or place for lodging guests, 2) Place
for treating the ill
24.Hunt – 1) Seeking something, especially game animals, to
kill or capture, 2) Those engaged in a search and taking
25.Light – 1) A non-heavy object,2) what the sun gives off.
26.Lock – 1) A fastener fitted to a door or drawer to keep it
firmly closed,2)Becomerigid or immoveable

93
27.Love – Affection, romantic(fall in love with), Enjoyment,
(love of learning), a score in games like tennis, Love-all).
28.Magazine – 1) A periodic publication containing pictures
and stories and articles of interest to those who purchase
it or subscribe to, 2) it product consisting of a paperback
periodic publication as a physical object
29.Man – 1) Humankind (both male and female, old and
young), 2)Specifically a male human being, 3) Even more
specificallyan adult male human being.
30.Militia – 1) Military or defense activity, 2) Those engaged
in or subject to being required to engage in defense
activity
31.Milk - The verb milk (e.g. "he's milking it for all he can
get") derives from the process ofobtaining milk.
32.Ministry – 1) Serving the needs of others , 2) Those
engaged in serving the needs of others
33.Mole – 1) A small burrowing mammal, 2) Consequently,
there are several different entities called moles (see the
Mole disambiguation page). Although these refer to
different things, their names derive from 1. :e.g. A Mole
burrows for information hoping to go undetected.
34.Movement – 1) Motion, change in position, 2) Result of
motion or change; those who move or change
35.Note – 1) noun: something written down in just a few Also,
2) verb meaning to notice, e.g., to note something, to take
note of someone'scomment.
36.Nurse – 1) Serving the needs of others, 2) Someone
engaged in serving the needs of others

Englishgrammar by Dr. bhawna bhardwaj

Englishgrammar by Dr. bhawna bhardwaj

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