This document provides a summary of the history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to 1965. It describes how Native Americans originally came from Asia, and that there were an estimated 6 million people living in what is now Mexico before European contact. It then summarizes the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in the 1500s, and the influences of both Native American and Spanish culture on Mexican identity. Subsequent chapters discuss the Spanish colonization of northern Mexico and Texas, Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican-American War of 1847 and the territories acquired by the US, discrimination faced by Mexicans in the new American Southwest, the Mexican Revolution of 1910 which drove immigration to the US, life for Mexican immigrants
.. U.S. Conquest and Mexican American Communities . VannaJoy20
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U.S. Conquest and Mexican
American Communities
. . . . , U s Southwest can trace their origins to th Several Mexican communities m today s · · b t bl· h · E e
• 1\ r S · Mexico l egan es a is mg uro'Pean Spanish colonial era. Colonists from 1 vew pain 11 'I .
settlements m New Mexico m the ate sixteen cen · ' 66 · · · l · th tury However New Spam struoafed
to colonize its Far North due to resistance from American Indians and the region's distance
from other Spanish settlements. To overcome these difficulties, ojficials used missions to
convert Indians into Spanish subjects, forts to defend Spanish settlements, and towns
to promote civilian populations. Nevertheless, the Far North remained unappealing due
to its isolation and the danger of Indian attacks. Worried about its inability to attract colo-
nists and facing advancing French and Euro American settlements, New Spain allowed
foreigners to settle in its Far North.
Mexico's successful war for independence .from Spain ( 1810-1821) left the young
nation's economy devastated. During the colonial era, the isolated northern settlements
lack:d regular communications and dependable trade with central New Spain, whose
?ffiaals .frequently neglected to pay eq~'.P soldiers. The devastation caused by the
independence war exacerbated Mexico s inability to provide military dfi • l
. . an znancza support to its northernmost settlements. Feeling neglected by their central · h
'd • • . government nort ern res, ents gradually began estabhshing economic and soda/ ties with E ' .
Mexico's leaders expanded the colonization program by effering land d uro Amenc~ns.
to foreigners willing to settle in its Far North. Euro A.,,,, . an tax exemptions
. 11iencans wh • . d into Texas legally and illegally, were the largest groun to parti' . .' 0 immigrate
. r cipate in Me • , l . zatzon program. They soon outnumbered Mexican Texans (Ti . . xico s co ont-h C]anos) in Ti t e newcomers spread U.S. culture, manufactured goods and
1
. . exas, where l ' po itical · ,,11 contra the flood ef Euro Americans into Texas, Mexico curtai/e . 'f!J,uence. To
program. d Us colonization
The US. conquest of Mexico's Far North began with Texas' sep . l
aratist reb ll' aunched by Euro Americans and Tejanos. Nine years later the ad,,,,.• . e ton (18361
. , ,, itsszon ef Tt 'h Union, combined with a border dispute, triggered the US-Mexican w, exas into the
ar (1846-J848).
34
U.S. CONQUEST AND MEXICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITIES 35
Although most Tejanos remained neutral during the separatist struggl:, Euro Ar:iericans
accused them of siding with Mexico . The negative portrayals of Mexicans resul!ing from
the Texas rebellion combined with the belief in manifest destiny generated public sup~ort
for the war. "Manifest destiny" encapsulated Euro Americans' beliefs that the United
States was predestined to expand westward and justified to spread its "superior" cul~ure,
ideas, and institutions throug ...
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In a May 9, 2024 paper, Juri Opitz from the University of Zurich, along with Shira Wein and Nathan Schneider form Georgetown University, discussed the importance of linguistic expertise in natural language processing (NLP) in an era dominated by large language models (LLMs).
The authors explained that while machine translation (MT) previously relied heavily on linguists, the landscape has shifted. “Linguistics is no longer front and center in the way we build NLP systems,” they said. With the emergence of LLMs, which can generate fluent text without the need for specialized modules to handle grammar or semantic coherence, the need for linguistic expertise in NLP is being questioned.
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हम आग्रह करते हैं कि जो भी सत्ता में आए, वह संविधान का पालन करे, उसकी रक्षा करे और उसे बनाए रखे।" प्रस्ताव में कुल तीन प्रमुख हस्तक्षेप और उनके तंत्र भी प्रस्तुत किए गए। पहला हस्तक्षेप स्वतंत्र मीडिया को प्रोत्साहित करके, वास्तविकता पर आधारित काउंटर नैरेटिव का निर्माण करके और सत्तारूढ़ सरकार द्वारा नियोजित मनोवैज्ञानिक हेरफेर की रणनीति का मुकाबला करके लोगों द्वारा निर्धारित कथा को बनाए रखना और उस पर कार्यकरना था।
role of women and girls in various terror groupssadiakorobi2
Women have three distinct types of involvement: direct involvement in terrorist acts; enabling of others to commit such acts; and facilitating the disengagement of others from violent or extremist groups.
‘वोटर्स विल मस्ट प्रीवेल’ (मतदाताओं को जीतना होगा) अभियान द्वारा जारी हेल्पलाइन नंबर, 4 जून को सुबह 7 बजे से दोपहर 12 बजे तक मतगणना प्रक्रिया में कहीं भी किसी भी तरह के उल्लंघन की रिपोर्ट करने के लिए खुला रहेगा।
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3. BEFORE CONQUEST
It is believed that Native Americans
originally came from an Asian tribe that
crossed over to the American continent
and then traveled downward. There is
much evidence to support this through
artifacts, studies on blood types, and
linguistic analysis
It is believed that the Native Americans
were more diverse in cultures that
Europe.
There was an estimated 6 million people
throughout South Mexico alone before
Columbus reached it. These people lived
in a more advanced society than earlier
historians gave them credit for.
4. THE CONQUEST
Cortez arrived at the same time the Aztecs
prophesied their Messiah figure would return.
Suspecting them of being gods, the native let
them into their village, where Cortez gained
the leader’s, Moctezuma, trust and used him
as a hostage to extort treasure from the
natives.
Moctezuma was fatally injured and the
Spaniards fled in the night.
The Spaniards are able to defeat the natives
with help from rivals of the Aztecs, as well as
their superior technology and use of the
5. INFLUENCES ON THE MEXICAN CULTURE
Mexicans are predominately mestizos, or a
product of mixed race. They are of both Native
American and European decent and their
culture has been influenced by both.
“… the Mexicans’ entire life is steeped in Indian
culture- the family, love, friendship, attitudes,
toward one’s father and mother, popular
legends, the form of civility and life in common,
the vision of death and sex, work and festivity”-
Octavio Paz
The Spanish imprint on Mexican culture is not
just race, but also language and Religion.
7. NORTHERN SETTLEMENTS
Through the 16th century there were many
attempts the find the legendary gold of the new
world. These failed explorations laid the trails to
what would become the northern colonies.
New Mexico was the first area Spanish settlers
(pobladores) occupied. There was a perceived
threat of western expansion by the British.
Texas was settled as a response the French
colony of New Orleans and their pelt trade.
California was explored for it’s coastal ports and
potential trade with China. Many Catholic
missions were also established to minister to
8. LIFE ON THE FRONTIER
The family, always A democratic ideal was
near the core of developed on the frontier
Spanish life, became as a result of the
even more important in common, rough
the hostile, isolated existence. There wasn’t
north. much difference between
Women played an the rich and poor.
important role on the
frontier because the Aggressive Indians also
necessity or their labor many the cooperation of
as well as their normal the family and community
domestic duties. units absolutely
necessary.
9. THE NATIVES
The first category of
natives were the
Pueblos, who were
more
peaceful, allowing
trade, conversion and
intermarriage possible.
The second group
were indios barbaros
consisting of
nomadic, pillaging
tribes who were often
10. 1821-1848 Chapter 3
THE MEXICAN FAR NORTH
Mexican Independance
to The Mexican War
11. MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE
Independence was gained in 1821 by
conservatives in Mexico who feared being
under a new “atheist” regime in New Spain.
It came after more than 10 years of political
turmoil, and decades of discontent based on
social inequities.
12. NORTHERN MEXICO
The period before and after Independence
was politically confusing for the whole nation,
but there was not much violence in the
northern areas.
California and Texas were areas Anglos
emigrated to, mostly for economic reasons
like ranching and gold mining.
The racism shown toward Mexicans by
Anglos would echo their relationship for
years.
13. THE WAR OF 1847
Racism and Manifest The war lasted from May
Destiny, the idea that to November but there
America was fated to be were some tough battles
a continental in the northern cities
nation, were main Monterrey and Buena
reasons the U.S. stated Vista.
the war.
President Polk wanted The final battle was led
California and Texas so by General Scott who
he inaccurately said arrived by sea and
Mexican troops had fired followed the same path
on American troops in as Cortez himself
Texas.
15. MISTREATMENT OF NEW CITIZENS
Mexicans in the areas won by American in
the war were discriminated against,
exploited, and had their rights denied, which
was in violation of the Treaty of Hidalgo.
Land ownership was the worst abuse. The
Land Act of 1851 required Spanish and
Mexican land grantees to provide a deed
with almost perfect boundaries.
The fact that most couldn’t speak English
and were poor, except for their land, didn’t
help out their situation at all.
16. ANGLO-MEXICAN RELATIONS
Racial Tensions were high in California and
Texas, where most of the Anglos has moved
from the east. Initial Mexican fortune in the gold
mines accounts for Anglos’ racism and
exclusion
New Mexico didn’t see much Anglo
immigration, so the social order and cultural ties
to the Old Country remained the same.
Arizona saw the best Mexican-Anglo relations.
They lived peacefully, with business cooperation
and intermarriage being more common.
17. MEXICAN REACTIONS
Bandits, the first and Mutualistas (mutual-aid
most popular being societies) gave general
Joaquin Marietta, were social services to, and
inspiring figures in protected the rights
Mexican-American of, Mexicans living in the
southwest.
Culture.
19. REASONS FOR MIGRATION
There were many reasons why Mexicans
started and continued to emigrate.
Financial motives tend to be the most
pervasive over time.
The southwest had many opportunities for
immigrants, especially in the mining, railroad
maintenance and agriculture businesses.
The Revolution of 1910 is a major reason for
Mexican immigration during this period.
20. THE REVOLUTION OF 1910
Began as a political Many people left to
revolt, but soon escape the rising
turned into a full violence and political
social turmoil in
revolt, affecting Mexico, most were
politics, economics, liberals.
and culture.
21. THE IMMIGRANT
They came because even though there would be
discrimination, they wouldn’t be as oppressed.
They got in by hiring guides, coyotes, and then
got jobs through contratistas, intermediaries for
the Mexican laborers and their employers.
The urban Mexican had more contact with whites
and therefore more discrimination.
Rural Mexicans tended to live together in small
communities, so they were safer from outside
factors.
23. BARRIOS
Mexicans entering the cities usually moved
to neighborhoods with a Mexican culture and
other Mexicans.
Chain migration is when a person first
immigrates to an area to secure a job and
home, then another person from their family
comes, then another and so on.
The existence of minority communities
allowed people to make the journey with
more ease.
24. THE ECONOMY
Many poor immigrants who were barely
getting by before the economic crash were
forced to repatriate back to Mexico.
Anglos were now competing with Mexicans
for low-paying jobs, driving their pay down
farther.
Both mining and railroads, Mexicans’ second
and third most important industries were
forced to make major cut backs.
25. AGITATION
Agriculture was hit by the depression as well.
Labor strikes were used in the decades
preceding the depression but during this era
is when union striking became common.
In 1933, 37 strikes involving 45,000 people
occurred in California.
26. 1940-1965 Chapter 7
THE SECOND WAR AND
ITS AFTERMATH
27. MAINSTREAM AMERICANOS
Mexicans were quick to volunteer for World
War II. In the military, Latinos were simply
counted as whites, which seems like a good
thing, yet doesn’t allow for accurate
numbers.
It was seen as one of their only opportunities
to climb the socioeconomic ladder.
Mexicans were also overrepresented during
the war because of their innate cultural
machoism.
War was seen as a great way for a man to
28. PROBLEMS AT HOME
Working mothers were not
uncommon among immigrants.
During the war years many
women also got jobs because
the men were overseas.
This trend, urbanization and
gangs broke down the
idealized social unit of the
Mexican family.
Zoot Suiters, or
pachucos, were young men in
gangs, alienated in and out of
29. THE WORKERS
The Bracero Program brought Mexicans into
the United States to do work, while most men
were fighting overseas. It ran from 1942 to
1964.
Undocumented workers also came to the
U.S. in huge numbers as the economy
picked up.
Both groups of workers were treated and
paid poorly, but as it was still an improvement
on their usual conditions and wages they
kept competing.
31. CHICANOISM
The Chicano movement prided themselves
on their ethnic roots and deemphasized
assimilation.
Indigenismo was the glorification of the
motherland and their Indian heritage, a trend
more popular among students.
Some activists went as far as to call for
separation of the Chicanos and the creation
for their own homeland here in the
Southwest.
32. TRIPLE MINORITIES
Woman in the Chicano movement were
commonly disregarded, like in other civil
rights movements.
They formed their own groups which dealt
with Chicano issues as well as their unique
issues as women.
Because they were women, usually poor and
Mexican they experienced discrimination on
three different fronts.
33. WORKER AND STUDENT MOVEMENTS
Cesar Chavez became the most famous
Chicano activist after leading effective strikes
and boycotts in California for field workers.
Students in California achieved bi-lingual
education as well as Chicano studies
departments and making the nation more
aware of their plight.
35. NAFTA
The North American Free Trade Agreement was
suppose to bolster up the Mexican economy by
providing jobs manufacturing for Americans.
It was suppose to give alleviate immigration,
which had been increasing dramatically, by
giving Mexicans jobs and reasons to stay in
their own homeland.
It did the opposite, making the poor poorer and
the rich richer. This causes much more social
strife and encourages more immigration.
36. UNFULFILLED PROMISE
The Chicano movement made them think
their political power would continue to grow.
However, the enthusiasm of the movement
burned out, leaving minimal gains in politics
and society.
Economically, a small middle-class began to
emerge and families began to move to the
suburbs.
The resistance to change had been to great
and the movement why have overestimated
its ability.
37. THE CHICANO RENAISSANCE
This period of negligible socioeconomic
changes do stand out as a period of great
cultural and artistic achievement.
Literature is the most important of these
advances, a popular poem being I am
Joaquin/Yo soy Joaquin, by Corky Gonzalez.
39. NEW IMMIGRANTS
Like older immigrants they come to escape
violence in Mexico, recently from drug
cartels.
There are about 12 million Mexican
immigrants in the country and another 12
million Mexicans counted as undocumented
immigrants.
40. AMERICAN RESPONSE
Americans, especially since 9/11 have
responded to the huge influx of immigrants
with racism and scapegoating.
Republicans have passed laws at both the
state and federal levels which make it hard to
exist.
Both parties say they want to reform
immigration policy but neither want to upset big
business
Racists groups have also cropped up,
including the Minutemen and Riders USA, with
41. A GROWING ELECTORATE
Grassroots movements have erupted do to the
racist legislation dealing with immigration.
Hundreds of thousands of people take to the
street every May to demonstrate for immigrant
rights.
George Bush was able to appeal to the Latino
community’s socially conservative side, helping
him win in Texas and the presidency.
Renewed Latino support of
Democrats, including Barack Obama, show that
the Latino vote is becoming ever more important