This document summarizes a chapter about free black labor in late colonial Mexico. It discusses two free black men, Vicente Medina and Lucio Antonio Rodriguez, who faced legal issues despite holding jobs. It then provides statistics on the occupations of over 11,000 free black males in Mexico in the 1780s-1790s, with over half working in agriculture. The document examines the economic opportunities and challenges faced by free blacks in Mexico during this time period.
The status and rights of indigenous peoples in latin americaDr Lendy Spires
This document discusses the status and rights of indigenous peoples in Latin America. It notes that Latin America has great diversity in indigenous cultures, with over 400 groups and a population of around 40 million people. It then discusses how the Spanish and Portuguese approached indigenous communities differently during the colonial period. The Spanish developed an encomienda system that required indigenous people to provide labor and tribute to colonizers. This led to a debate around indigenous rights and status within the colonial system.
This document summarizes the history of Mexico and Mexican Americans from prehistory to the present. Key events include Spanish conquest in the 15th-16th centuries led by figures like Christopher Columbus and Hernan Cortes; Mexican independence from Spain in 1821; the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 and subsequent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; the Mexican Revolution from 1910-1920; large waves of Mexican immigration to the U.S. in the early 20th century; and the Chicano civil rights movement of the 1960s-70s advocating for equality and cultural pride. It examines the experiences of Mexican immigrants and Mexican Americans over time through wars, economic difficulties, discrimination, and empowerment movements
1) Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas while attempting to establish a new trade route to Asia for Spain, unintentionally discovering lands unknown to Europeans.
2) Indigenous populations in pre-Columbian Latin America varied greatly and were classified as sedentary, semi-sedentary, or non-sedentary based on their lifestyles and social structures.
3) After conquest, sedentary groups faced exploitation of their labor for mining and agriculture to benefit the Spanish crown, resulting in a dramatic decline in indigenous populations over subsequent centuries.
This document provides a summary of the history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to 1965. It describes how Native Americans originally came from Asia, and that there were an estimated 6 million people living in what is now Mexico before European contact. It then summarizes the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in the 1500s, and the influences of both Native American and Spanish culture on Mexican identity. Subsequent chapters discuss the Spanish colonization of northern Mexico and Texas, Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican-American War of 1847 and the territories acquired by the US, discrimination faced by Mexicans in the new American Southwest, the Mexican Revolution of 1910 which drove immigration to the US, life for Mexican immigrants
The document provides a summary of each chapter in the book "Mexicanos: The History of Mexicans in the United States" which traces the history of Mexicans and Mexican Americans from ancient times to the present. It discusses the Spanish conquest of Mexico, settlement of the Southwest United States, periods of immigration, the rise of civil rights movements, increasing population growth and political influence, and challenges faced by Mexican communities in the US.
The book Mexicanos tells the history of Mexican culture and the experiences of Mexicans immigrating to the United States for better opportunities. It describes how in the early 1920s, migration to the US was easier as Mexicans could freely move back and forth for work. However, during the Great Depression many lost their jobs and faced increased pressure to return to Mexico, with over a third deported. Today, despite the dangers, hundreds still die each year attempting to cross borders in search of employment in the US.
The status and rights of indigenous peoples in latin americaDr Lendy Spires
This document discusses the status and rights of indigenous peoples in Latin America. It notes that Latin America has great diversity in indigenous cultures, with over 400 groups and a population of around 40 million people. It then discusses how the Spanish and Portuguese approached indigenous communities differently during the colonial period. The Spanish developed an encomienda system that required indigenous people to provide labor and tribute to colonizers. This led to a debate around indigenous rights and status within the colonial system.
This document summarizes the history of Mexico and Mexican Americans from prehistory to the present. Key events include Spanish conquest in the 15th-16th centuries led by figures like Christopher Columbus and Hernan Cortes; Mexican independence from Spain in 1821; the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848 and subsequent Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; the Mexican Revolution from 1910-1920; large waves of Mexican immigration to the U.S. in the early 20th century; and the Chicano civil rights movement of the 1960s-70s advocating for equality and cultural pride. It examines the experiences of Mexican immigrants and Mexican Americans over time through wars, economic difficulties, discrimination, and empowerment movements
1) Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas while attempting to establish a new trade route to Asia for Spain, unintentionally discovering lands unknown to Europeans.
2) Indigenous populations in pre-Columbian Latin America varied greatly and were classified as sedentary, semi-sedentary, or non-sedentary based on their lifestyles and social structures.
3) After conquest, sedentary groups faced exploitation of their labor for mining and agriculture to benefit the Spanish crown, resulting in a dramatic decline in indigenous populations over subsequent centuries.
This document provides a summary of the history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to 1965. It describes how Native Americans originally came from Asia, and that there were an estimated 6 million people living in what is now Mexico before European contact. It then summarizes the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in the 1500s, and the influences of both Native American and Spanish culture on Mexican identity. Subsequent chapters discuss the Spanish colonization of northern Mexico and Texas, Mexican independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican-American War of 1847 and the territories acquired by the US, discrimination faced by Mexicans in the new American Southwest, the Mexican Revolution of 1910 which drove immigration to the US, life for Mexican immigrants
The document provides a summary of each chapter in the book "Mexicanos: The History of Mexicans in the United States" which traces the history of Mexicans and Mexican Americans from ancient times to the present. It discusses the Spanish conquest of Mexico, settlement of the Southwest United States, periods of immigration, the rise of civil rights movements, increasing population growth and political influence, and challenges faced by Mexican communities in the US.
The book Mexicanos tells the history of Mexican culture and the experiences of Mexicans immigrating to the United States for better opportunities. It describes how in the early 1920s, migration to the US was easier as Mexicans could freely move back and forth for work. However, during the Great Depression many lost their jobs and faced increased pressure to return to Mexico, with over a third deported. Today, despite the dangers, hundreds still die each year attempting to cross borders in search of employment in the US.
This document provides a summary of Mexican history from the arrival of the Spaniards in Mexico to recent trends among the Mexican population in the United States. It covers major periods and events including the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, mass Mexican immigration to the US in the early 20th century, and the rise of the Chicano movement fighting for civil rights. More recently, it discusses the growth of the Mexican population and culture in the US as well as ongoing issues around immigration and socioeconomic status.
The document provides a historical overview of Mexicanos in the United States from pre-Columbian civilizations through the present day. It covers major periods and events including the Spanish conquest in the 1500s, the Mexican-American War of the 1840s which ceded Mexican territory to the US, waves of Mexican immigration in the early 1900s and again starting in the 1960s, the development of the Chicano movement in the 1960s-70s advocating for civil rights, and recent debates around immigration and the growing influence of Mexican culture in the US. The document traces the integration and adaptation of Mexican culture over time as the population increased and dispersed throughout the US.
The document summarizes key events and people in Mexican history. It first discusses the pre-colonial history of Spain and Native Americans in Mexico. It then covers Mexico gaining independence from Spain in 1821. It describes the great migration of Mexicans to the United States in search of better opportunities and their experiences with exploitation and discrimination. It also outlines the Chicano movement of the 1960s-70s that promoted civil rights and a new cultural identity for Mexican Americans. The document concludes by listing some important Mexican figures like actors Maria Felix and Pedro Infante, tennis player Pancho Gonzalez, and civil rights leader Dr. Hector Garcia.
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly article about the Mexican experience in the United States during the Great Depression era. It discusses two key topics: 1) How the Mexican community in Los Angeles ("Mexico de Afuera") reacted to increasing anti-Mexican policies and sentiments in the U.S. that encouraged repatriation back to Mexico. 2) How Mexico de Afuera responded to the Mexican government's employment of nationalist rhetoric and empty promises through repatriation programs. The document analyzes articles from the periodical La Opinión to understand how the community navigated these pressures and challenges.
The document discusses the history of Mexicans and Native Americans in the Americas. It covers the Spanish conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes, and the Aztec and Mayan civilizations. It also discusses the Spanish exploration and settlement of the northern frontier regions including New Mexico and California. Later sections cover Mexican independence from Spain and the American conquest and settlement of the Southwest, including the anti-Mexican attitudes and struggles over land ownership that Mexican populations faced.
Mexicanos by manuel e gonzalez power pointkayteeb61
This document provides a summary of each chapter in the book "Mexicanos by Manuel E Gonzalez" which discusses the history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to the present. Some key points covered include the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in the 1500s, the Mexican-American war of 1848 which ceded Mexican territory to the US, the period of heavy Mexican immigration from 1900-1930 known as the "Great Migration," the rise of the Chicano movement in the 1960s-70s advocating for civil rights, and recent trends of the growing Mexican population in the US now exceeding 47 million people.
The document summarizes Latin American independence movements from 1807-1824 as Spain and Portugal's colonies gained independence. It discusses the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal in Mexico, Central America, South America, and Brazil. While the empires functioned well for three centuries, grievances among colonists regarding economic restrictions and taxes imposed by imperial powers grew in the mid-1700s. The first decades of independence saw increased political participation but fundamental social and economic structures changed little.
During the Cold War in Latin America, many countries experienced "dirty wars" where military dictatorships took control and violently suppressed dissent to eliminate perceived communist threats. While Mexico maintained civilian rule, it engaged in similar repression through tactics like massacres of student protesters and disappearances of dissidents. Attempts to prosecute perpetrators in Mexico and other countries like Guatemala and El Salvador have faced resistance, with few cases ever making it to court. The document analyzes how even under civilian government, Mexico experienced a "dirty war" pattern of violence comparable to other Latin American nations during this volatile period of history.
The document is a summary and analysis of Jose Rizal's essay "The Philippines a Century Hence" which considers possible futures for the Philippines under continued Spanish rule. It outlines three main possibilities: 1) the Philippines remaining a Spanish colony with some autonomy; 2) becoming a province of Spain; or 3) gaining independence after conflict. It notes Rizal believed independence was inevitable if reforms were not implemented and repression continued to push sentiments towards rebellion. The summary also highlights Rizal's views that a free press and Filipino representation were needed for good governance from a distance. He ultimately felt independence was likely if abuses persisted, though external powers would leave the Philippines alone after any conflict for independence.
Rizal analyzes the future of the Philippines within the next century under Spanish rule. He discusses three possible outcomes: 1) Assimilation into Spain with equal rights, 2) Destruction of the Philippines, or 3) Elimination of Spain from the Philippines. Rizal argues that the last option is most likely, as the existence of Spain as a foreign power in the Philippines goes against natural and ethical laws. He also questions whether Spain can prevent progress in the Philippines, as attempts to keep people uneducated, impoverished, and exterminate them have all failed to hinder the awakening of national consciousness.
Today's world is the product of immense migrations - through invasions or small groups - that have contributed to the enrichment of the human species, in genetic and cultural terms. To speak of homelands and nation-states is nonsense that suits some. Symbolically, we are all Lucy's grandchildren.
Summary
1 - Immigrants and emigrants, all natives of the planet
2 - Native population and resident foreigners
1) The passage discusses the origins and impacts of colonialism, which framed how Europeans viewed development. Europeans saw colonized peoples as backward and in need of European guidance.
2) Colonialism disrupted indigenous cultures and economies by extracting resources and imposing hierarchies. It also led Europeans to view their culture as superior and a model for less developed societies.
3) Pre-colonial societies had diverse social and economic systems tailored to local environments, from small subsistence communities to empires, but colonialism alienated people from their lands and traditions.
This chapter provides a history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to the early 20th century. It discusses the Spanish conquest of Mexico and the exploration and settlement of areas like New Mexico and California under Spanish rule. After Mexican independence, the chapter examines the Mexican periods of territories like California and New Mexico and the influx of American settlers and traders along the Santa Fe Trail. It then analyzes the American conquest and changing demographics and power dynamics between Mexicans and Anglos in the Southwest from 1848-1900. Subsequent chapters discuss the massive Mexican migration to the US from 1900-1930 due to the Mexican Revolution and economic factors. It also analyzes the experiences of Mexicans during the Great Depression and World War 2,
The document discusses the history of ideologies in Latin America from the 18th to 20th centuries. It explores how Enlightenment, Romanticism, and Positivism influenced revolutions seeking independence, democracy, and development. Major revolutions in Mexico and Cuba are also summarized, highlighting the roles of key figures like Emiliano Zapata, Fidel Castro, and economic/political factors. International interventions from the US and adoption of different forms of socialism are also examined.
The document summarizes key aspects of Mexico, including its history, geography, demographics, culture, and climate. Some of the main points covered are:
- Mexico was home to advanced civilizations like the Maya, Olmec, Toltec, and Aztec before the Spanish arrival in 1519.
- It gained independence from Spain in 1821 but lost northern territory to the US. The PRI party dominated politics for much of the 20th century.
- The population is around 95 million, with most having mixed European-Amerindian descent. Spanish and indigenous languages are widely spoken.
- Catholicism blended with pre-Hispanic religions is the dominant faith. Cultural heritage draws from both Spanish and
The document provides a summary of each chapter in a history textbook about Mexicans in the United States. It discusses key topics like Spanish conquest of Aztecs, the Mexican-American War, periods of immigration from Mexico to the US, the Mexican Revolution, challenges faced during economic downturns, Mexican American civil rights movements, and increasing political power of Latino communities. Major themes include Spanish colonization, periods of immigration and settlement, discrimination and efforts to gain rights, and recent increasing demographic and political influence of Mexican Americans.
The document summarizes Jose Rizal's views on Spain's colonial rule of the Philippines in an essay. Rizal discusses three possible outcomes: 1) assimilation of the Philippines into Spain, 2) destruction of the Philippines, or 3) elimination of Spain from the Philippines. Rizal believes the third option is most likely. He also argues that Spain cannot prevent progress in the Philippines by keeping people uneducated, impoverished, or attempting extermination. Spain must change its colonial policies to the needs of Philippine society and rising nationalism. Rizal's vision eventually came true when the US took control of the Philippines from Spain in 1898.
This document provides an overview of Spanish colonial policies and events in the 19th century and their effects in the Philippines. It discusses political instability in Spain which led to frequent changes in colonial administrators in the Philippines, negatively impacting policy formulation. It also describes corruption among governor generals and the negative effects of the Spanish political structure, racial discrimination, denial of human rights, maladministration of justice, and limited Philippine representation in Spanish government. The document analyzes how these colonial policies and events undermined good governance and exploited the Filipino people.
The document provides an introduction to the history of Latin America, beginning with European colonization in the 15th century. It discusses some shared characteristics and differing traits among Latin American countries. The introduction also examines perspectives on explaining Latin America's development, from racial determinism to dependency theory. Finally, it previews some of the key topics covered in the first chapter, including the patterns of indigenous life pre-colonization, the motivations for European exploration and colonization, and the consequences of the European encounter across Latin America.
The document provides information on the history and development of Latin America, including:
1) In the early 19th century, Britain negotiated trade privileges in Brazil in exchange for supporting Portugal, and gradually dismantled restrictions on trade with Spanish colonies as independence movements emerged.
2) Latin America experienced numerous internal wars related to issues like ideology, territory, resources, and social classes as well as foreign interventions driven by capitalist interests.
3) Rapid urbanization in the late 19th/early 20th centuries saw many Latin American cities like Buenos Aires experience huge population growth as people migrated from rural to urban areas.
The following pairs of co-morbid disorders and a write 700 words .docxssuser454af01
The following pairs of co-morbid disorders and a write 700 words
based on your research:
Depression and substance abuse
Address
the following:
Discuss the general concept of co-morbidity.
Format
your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
.
The following is an access verification technique, listing several f.docxssuser454af01
The following is an access verification technique, listing several files and the access allowed for a single use.
Identify the control technique used here and for each,
explain the type of access allowed
.
a. File_1 R-E-
b. File_12 RWE
c. File_13 RW--
d. File_14 --E-
2.
. The following is an access verification technique, listing several users and the access allowed for File_13.
Identify the control technique used here and for each and
explain the type of access allowed.
Finally, describe who is included in the WORLD category.
a. User_10 --E-
b. User_14 RWED
c. User_17 RWE-
d. WORLD R---
.
This document provides a summary of Mexican history from the arrival of the Spaniards in Mexico to recent trends among the Mexican population in the United States. It covers major periods and events including the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs, the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, mass Mexican immigration to the US in the early 20th century, and the rise of the Chicano movement fighting for civil rights. More recently, it discusses the growth of the Mexican population and culture in the US as well as ongoing issues around immigration and socioeconomic status.
The document provides a historical overview of Mexicanos in the United States from pre-Columbian civilizations through the present day. It covers major periods and events including the Spanish conquest in the 1500s, the Mexican-American War of the 1840s which ceded Mexican territory to the US, waves of Mexican immigration in the early 1900s and again starting in the 1960s, the development of the Chicano movement in the 1960s-70s advocating for civil rights, and recent debates around immigration and the growing influence of Mexican culture in the US. The document traces the integration and adaptation of Mexican culture over time as the population increased and dispersed throughout the US.
The document summarizes key events and people in Mexican history. It first discusses the pre-colonial history of Spain and Native Americans in Mexico. It then covers Mexico gaining independence from Spain in 1821. It describes the great migration of Mexicans to the United States in search of better opportunities and their experiences with exploitation and discrimination. It also outlines the Chicano movement of the 1960s-70s that promoted civil rights and a new cultural identity for Mexican Americans. The document concludes by listing some important Mexican figures like actors Maria Felix and Pedro Infante, tennis player Pancho Gonzalez, and civil rights leader Dr. Hector Garcia.
This document summarizes and analyzes a scholarly article about the Mexican experience in the United States during the Great Depression era. It discusses two key topics: 1) How the Mexican community in Los Angeles ("Mexico de Afuera") reacted to increasing anti-Mexican policies and sentiments in the U.S. that encouraged repatriation back to Mexico. 2) How Mexico de Afuera responded to the Mexican government's employment of nationalist rhetoric and empty promises through repatriation programs. The document analyzes articles from the periodical La Opinión to understand how the community navigated these pressures and challenges.
The document discusses the history of Mexicans and Native Americans in the Americas. It covers the Spanish conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes, and the Aztec and Mayan civilizations. It also discusses the Spanish exploration and settlement of the northern frontier regions including New Mexico and California. Later sections cover Mexican independence from Spain and the American conquest and settlement of the Southwest, including the anti-Mexican attitudes and struggles over land ownership that Mexican populations faced.
Mexicanos by manuel e gonzalez power pointkayteeb61
This document provides a summary of each chapter in the book "Mexicanos by Manuel E Gonzalez" which discusses the history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to the present. Some key points covered include the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in the 1500s, the Mexican-American war of 1848 which ceded Mexican territory to the US, the period of heavy Mexican immigration from 1900-1930 known as the "Great Migration," the rise of the Chicano movement in the 1960s-70s advocating for civil rights, and recent trends of the growing Mexican population in the US now exceeding 47 million people.
The document summarizes Latin American independence movements from 1807-1824 as Spain and Portugal's colonies gained independence. It discusses the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal in Mexico, Central America, South America, and Brazil. While the empires functioned well for three centuries, grievances among colonists regarding economic restrictions and taxes imposed by imperial powers grew in the mid-1700s. The first decades of independence saw increased political participation but fundamental social and economic structures changed little.
During the Cold War in Latin America, many countries experienced "dirty wars" where military dictatorships took control and violently suppressed dissent to eliminate perceived communist threats. While Mexico maintained civilian rule, it engaged in similar repression through tactics like massacres of student protesters and disappearances of dissidents. Attempts to prosecute perpetrators in Mexico and other countries like Guatemala and El Salvador have faced resistance, with few cases ever making it to court. The document analyzes how even under civilian government, Mexico experienced a "dirty war" pattern of violence comparable to other Latin American nations during this volatile period of history.
The document is a summary and analysis of Jose Rizal's essay "The Philippines a Century Hence" which considers possible futures for the Philippines under continued Spanish rule. It outlines three main possibilities: 1) the Philippines remaining a Spanish colony with some autonomy; 2) becoming a province of Spain; or 3) gaining independence after conflict. It notes Rizal believed independence was inevitable if reforms were not implemented and repression continued to push sentiments towards rebellion. The summary also highlights Rizal's views that a free press and Filipino representation were needed for good governance from a distance. He ultimately felt independence was likely if abuses persisted, though external powers would leave the Philippines alone after any conflict for independence.
Rizal analyzes the future of the Philippines within the next century under Spanish rule. He discusses three possible outcomes: 1) Assimilation into Spain with equal rights, 2) Destruction of the Philippines, or 3) Elimination of Spain from the Philippines. Rizal argues that the last option is most likely, as the existence of Spain as a foreign power in the Philippines goes against natural and ethical laws. He also questions whether Spain can prevent progress in the Philippines, as attempts to keep people uneducated, impoverished, and exterminate them have all failed to hinder the awakening of national consciousness.
Today's world is the product of immense migrations - through invasions or small groups - that have contributed to the enrichment of the human species, in genetic and cultural terms. To speak of homelands and nation-states is nonsense that suits some. Symbolically, we are all Lucy's grandchildren.
Summary
1 - Immigrants and emigrants, all natives of the planet
2 - Native population and resident foreigners
1) The passage discusses the origins and impacts of colonialism, which framed how Europeans viewed development. Europeans saw colonized peoples as backward and in need of European guidance.
2) Colonialism disrupted indigenous cultures and economies by extracting resources and imposing hierarchies. It also led Europeans to view their culture as superior and a model for less developed societies.
3) Pre-colonial societies had diverse social and economic systems tailored to local environments, from small subsistence communities to empires, but colonialism alienated people from their lands and traditions.
This chapter provides a history of Mexicans in the United States from prehistory to the early 20th century. It discusses the Spanish conquest of Mexico and the exploration and settlement of areas like New Mexico and California under Spanish rule. After Mexican independence, the chapter examines the Mexican periods of territories like California and New Mexico and the influx of American settlers and traders along the Santa Fe Trail. It then analyzes the American conquest and changing demographics and power dynamics between Mexicans and Anglos in the Southwest from 1848-1900. Subsequent chapters discuss the massive Mexican migration to the US from 1900-1930 due to the Mexican Revolution and economic factors. It also analyzes the experiences of Mexicans during the Great Depression and World War 2,
The document discusses the history of ideologies in Latin America from the 18th to 20th centuries. It explores how Enlightenment, Romanticism, and Positivism influenced revolutions seeking independence, democracy, and development. Major revolutions in Mexico and Cuba are also summarized, highlighting the roles of key figures like Emiliano Zapata, Fidel Castro, and economic/political factors. International interventions from the US and adoption of different forms of socialism are also examined.
The document summarizes key aspects of Mexico, including its history, geography, demographics, culture, and climate. Some of the main points covered are:
- Mexico was home to advanced civilizations like the Maya, Olmec, Toltec, and Aztec before the Spanish arrival in 1519.
- It gained independence from Spain in 1821 but lost northern territory to the US. The PRI party dominated politics for much of the 20th century.
- The population is around 95 million, with most having mixed European-Amerindian descent. Spanish and indigenous languages are widely spoken.
- Catholicism blended with pre-Hispanic religions is the dominant faith. Cultural heritage draws from both Spanish and
The document provides a summary of each chapter in a history textbook about Mexicans in the United States. It discusses key topics like Spanish conquest of Aztecs, the Mexican-American War, periods of immigration from Mexico to the US, the Mexican Revolution, challenges faced during economic downturns, Mexican American civil rights movements, and increasing political power of Latino communities. Major themes include Spanish colonization, periods of immigration and settlement, discrimination and efforts to gain rights, and recent increasing demographic and political influence of Mexican Americans.
The document summarizes Jose Rizal's views on Spain's colonial rule of the Philippines in an essay. Rizal discusses three possible outcomes: 1) assimilation of the Philippines into Spain, 2) destruction of the Philippines, or 3) elimination of Spain from the Philippines. Rizal believes the third option is most likely. He also argues that Spain cannot prevent progress in the Philippines by keeping people uneducated, impoverished, or attempting extermination. Spain must change its colonial policies to the needs of Philippine society and rising nationalism. Rizal's vision eventually came true when the US took control of the Philippines from Spain in 1898.
This document provides an overview of Spanish colonial policies and events in the 19th century and their effects in the Philippines. It discusses political instability in Spain which led to frequent changes in colonial administrators in the Philippines, negatively impacting policy formulation. It also describes corruption among governor generals and the negative effects of the Spanish political structure, racial discrimination, denial of human rights, maladministration of justice, and limited Philippine representation in Spanish government. The document analyzes how these colonial policies and events undermined good governance and exploited the Filipino people.
The document provides an introduction to the history of Latin America, beginning with European colonization in the 15th century. It discusses some shared characteristics and differing traits among Latin American countries. The introduction also examines perspectives on explaining Latin America's development, from racial determinism to dependency theory. Finally, it previews some of the key topics covered in the first chapter, including the patterns of indigenous life pre-colonization, the motivations for European exploration and colonization, and the consequences of the European encounter across Latin America.
The document provides information on the history and development of Latin America, including:
1) In the early 19th century, Britain negotiated trade privileges in Brazil in exchange for supporting Portugal, and gradually dismantled restrictions on trade with Spanish colonies as independence movements emerged.
2) Latin America experienced numerous internal wars related to issues like ideology, territory, resources, and social classes as well as foreign interventions driven by capitalist interests.
3) Rapid urbanization in the late 19th/early 20th centuries saw many Latin American cities like Buenos Aires experience huge population growth as people migrated from rural to urban areas.
The following pairs of co-morbid disorders and a write 700 words .docxssuser454af01
The following pairs of co-morbid disorders and a write 700 words
based on your research:
Depression and substance abuse
Address
the following:
Discuss the general concept of co-morbidity.
Format
your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
.
The following is an access verification technique, listing several f.docxssuser454af01
The following is an access verification technique, listing several files and the access allowed for a single use.
Identify the control technique used here and for each,
explain the type of access allowed
.
a. File_1 R-E-
b. File_12 RWE
c. File_13 RW--
d. File_14 --E-
2.
. The following is an access verification technique, listing several users and the access allowed for File_13.
Identify the control technique used here and for each and
explain the type of access allowed.
Finally, describe who is included in the WORLD category.
a. User_10 --E-
b. User_14 RWED
c. User_17 RWE-
d. WORLD R---
.
The following discussion board post has to have a response. Please r.docxssuser454af01
The following discussion board post has to have a response. Please read the post and respond back according to the instructions attached below. Make sure to respond as instructed. Check attachment for response instruction and respond accordingly.
The instructions for the response to post is attached and highlighted.
The due date is Tuesday 5/10/2021 by 11:59 a.m. NO LATE WORK WILL BE ACCEPTED!
.
The following information has been taken from the ledger accounts of.docxssuser454af01
The following information has been taken from the ledger accounts of Isaac Stern Corporation
Total Income since incorporation$317,000
Total Cash Dividends pai d60,000
Total value of stock dividends distributed30,000
Gains on treasury stock transactions18,000
Unamortized discount of bonds payable32,000
Directions: Determine the current balance of retained earnings
.
The following attach files are my History Homewrok and Lecture Power.docxssuser454af01
The following attach files are my History Homewrok and Lecture Power Point. Please answer those questions by your own words and read the instructions carefully beofer you start writing.
Course Information:
In this course we will survey the history of technological developments from the Renaissance to the current day. We will focus on a series of technological objects—machines, tools, and systems—considering them in their broader historical (social, cultural, and political) contexts. Organized chronologically we will trace this history beginning with Leonardo Da Vinci and ending with the International Space Station. This is not, however, a teleological assessment, which assumes a progressive improvement of technology—each age has merits in its own rights.
.
The following is adapted from the work of Paul Martin Lester.In .docxssuser454af01
The following is adapted from the work of Paul Martin Lester.
In order to find meaning from a visual message, you need to learn a systematic way for studying images.
1.
Make an inventory list of every element in the image,
2.
Note the lighting used in the image,
3.
Note any eye contact by subjects in the image,
4.
Note the visual cues of color, form, depth, and movement,
5.
Note how the gestalt laws apply toward the composition of picture,
6.
Note any semiotic signs that are a part of the image's content, and
When you've gone through the six steps noted above, it's time to apply the six perspectives for visual analysis to the piece. Each perspective is noted below.
Personal Perspective - Gut Reaction
Rick Williams' Omniphasism (all in balance) or Personal Impact Analysis
1.
What is the picture's story?
2.
List primary words.
3.
List associative words.
4.
Select most significant associative words.
5.
Pair up primary & most significant associative words.
6.
Relate word pairs with your own feelings.
7.
Relate any inner symbolism.
8.
Write a brief story concerning personal insights.
Historical Perspective - The image's place in history
When do you think the image was made?
Is there a specific style that the image imitates?
Technical Perspective - Consider the process decisions
How was the image produced?
What techniques were employed?
Is the image of good quality?
Ethical Perspective - Moral Responsibility
Was the image maker socially responsible?
Has any person's rights been violated?
Are the needs of viewers met?
Is the picture aesthetically appealing?
Do the picture choices reflect moderation?
Is the image maker empathetic with the subject?
Can all the image choices be justified?
Does the visual message cause unjustified harm?
Cultural Perspective - Societal Impact
What is the story and the symbolism involved with the elements in the visual message?
What do they say about current cultural values?
Critical Perspective - Reasoned Opinion
What do I think of this image now that I've spent so much time looking and studying it?
Project Overview:
This week, you were introduced to six analytical perspectives for analyzing media. These perspectives form the foundation for your Media Analysis Project (MAP). Over the next three weeks, you will analyze a visual work from any media (print, film, television, Internet), of your own choosing.
Due Date:
June 5
Time Line:
·
Topic Assignment (Listed under Paper Topic)
·
June 5 Thesis and Outline (Listed in appropriate headings below)
·
June 5 Final Paper
NOTE: Thesis and Outline, and Final Paper are two separate documents.
Requirements:
Your analysis must encompass all six perspectives. This will be a detailed analysis consisting of 6-8 written pages. You must also use four credible academic sources in addition to the media itself. All sources must be cited in-text as well as on a reference page using standard APA format. Information on using .
The following article is related to deterring employee fraud within .docxssuser454af01
The document summarizes key findings from a report on occupational fraud. It finds that while asset misappropriation is most common, fraudulent financial statements cause the highest losses. Small businesses are most vulnerable due to lack of audits and controls. Establishing anonymous hotlines is the most effective way to reduce fraud losses, more so than audits. Fraud by executives results in highest losses and is best detected through tips rather than controls.
The Five stages of ChangeBy Thursday, June 25, 2015, respond to .docxssuser454af01
The Five stages of Change
By Thursday, June 25, 2015, respond to the discussion.
Discussion Question
Anthony is a 27 year old heterosexual Caucasian male. He was arrested 2 weeks ago for his second DWI and is facing a license suspension. He works as a delivery driver for a local store and after disclosing the arrest to his employer, as well as the consequences including loss of his license, he was terminated.
Anthony lives with his girlfriend of 3 years and their 2 year old son. Anthony’s drinking behavior has increased to consumption of a case of beer on Saturday and Sunday evenings each week. He consumes several beers after work during the week “to maintain.” He has also been using methamphetamines, specifically “crystal meth” several times weekly. Anthony’s girlfriend ended their relationship as a result of his increasing substance use and ongoing difficulties. Anthony feels depressed and anxious about his current life situation, especially now that he realizes that he has no job and may be homeless because of his substance use. He is also feeling down about the loss of his relationship. He researched a few outpatient treatment programs to help him stop using both alcohol and methamphetamines, but is ambivalent about entering treatment. Anthony has considered the need to stop using substances to improve his life and relationships with significant others, though fears that he will lose his friends and miss partying with them if he stops. He also fears what life will be like without the comfort of getting high.
Consider and discuss the 5 stages of change. Based upon the information provided discuss what stage Anthony is in, and provide a rationale for your decision. Next, discuss the other stages of change and what indicators we might see as Anthony progresses on through these stages. Your posting must be a minimum of 500 words.
.
The first step in understanding the behaviors that are associated wi.docxssuser454af01
The first step in understanding the behaviors that are associated with mental disorders is to be able to differentiate the potential symptoms of a mental disorder from the everyday fluctuations or behaviors that we observe. Read the following brief case histories.
Case Study 1:
Bob is a very intelligent, 25-year-old member of a religious organization based on Buddhism. Bob’s working for this organization has caused considerable conflict between him and his parents, who are devout Baptists. Recently, Bob has experienced acute spells of nausea and fatigue that have prevented him from working and have forced him to return home to live with his parents. Various medical tests are being conducted, but as yet, no physical causes for his problems have been found.
Case Study 2:
Mary is a 30-year-old musician who is very dedicated and successful in her work as a teacher in a local high school and as a part-time member of local musical groups. Since her marriage five years ago, which ended in divorce after six months, she has dated very few men. She often worries about her time running out for establishing a good relationship with a man, getting married, and raising a family. Her friends tell her she gets way too anxious around men, and, in general, she needs to relax a little.
Case Study 3:
Jim was vice-president of the freshmen class at a local college and played on the school’s football team. Later that year, he dropped out of these activities and gradually became more and more withdrawn from friends and family. Neglecting to shave and shower, he began to look dirty and unhealthy. He spent most of his time alone in his room and sometimes complained to his parents that he heard voices in the curtains and in the closet. In his sophomore year, he dropped out of school entirely. With increasing anxiety and agitation, he began to worry that the Nazis were plotting to kill his family and kidnap him.
Case Study 4:
Larry, a 37-year-old gay man, has lived for three years with his partner, whom he met in graduate school. Larry works as a psychologist in a large hospital. Although competent in his work, he often feels strained by the pressures of his demanding position. An added source of tension on the job is his not being out with his co-workers, and, thus, he is not able to confide in anyone or talk about his private life. Most of his leisure activities are with good friends who are also part of the local gay community.
For each case, identify the individual's behaviors that seem to be problematic for the patient.
For each case study, explain from the biological, psychological, or socio-cultural perspective your decision-making process for identifying the behaviors that may or may not have been associated with the symptoms of a mental disorder.
Based on your course and text readings, provide an explanation why you would consider some of these cases to exhibit behaviors that may be associated with problems that occur in everyday life, while others could be as.
The first one is due Sep 24 at 1100AMthe French-born Mexican jo.docxssuser454af01
Elena Poniatowska, a French-born Mexican journalist and author, will give a public lecture called "We Can All Be Writers" at ASU on September 24th. Students can receive extra credit by attending the full event and submitting a 250-word rhetorical analysis that identifies one thing the speaker did well and one thing not done well in reaching her audience.
On September 25th, fiction writer and poet Matt Bell will read from and discuss his work at ASU. Extra credit can be received by attending the full event and submitting a 250-word report and 500-word personal reflection on what was learned, anything surprising, and how something related to the student's personal experiences or writing.
The first part is a direct quote, copied word for word. Includ.docxssuser454af01
The
first part
is a
direct quote, copied word for word. Include the author's last name and the page number of the quote in parantheses. MLA format.
The
second part
of the journal entry, is
one paragraph that explains why you found the passage to be important
.
.
The final research paper should be no less than 15 pages and in APA .docxssuser454af01
The final research paper must be at least 15 pages long, not including the references page, follow APA format, and include visual elements like charts or pictures to support the study. Students will submit their papers through the eCourse website where a link for submissions will be provided.
The first one Description Pick a physical activity. Somethi.docxssuser454af01
The first one
Description: Pick a
physical activity
. Something you do all the time, or something you’ve never done before: bike riding, running, swimming, hiking, golf, playing twister, roller skating, soccer, basketball, etc. Now go and spend at least twenty minutes participating in this activity. Really do it. Engage. Explore and experience it. Pay attention to every part of your body and mind as you play/do the activity. Even if you’ve done it all your life, engage with every nuance of the activity. What do your muscles do and feel like when doing the activity? What is challenging? What is smooth and easy? What sounds to you experience? smells? Tastes? Sights? Sensations? What about your mind? Where do your thoughts go as you perform the activity? Really pay attention and discover the experience of the activity. Perform it for at least twenty minutes, mindfully paying attention to every part of the experience. Experience and notice the details. Now go home. And write about what you experienced. Detail it. Tell me about what was hard, easy, unusual, fun, new? What did you feel, taste, smell, hear, see? Take me through it beat by beat, moment by moment, nuance by nuance.
The second one
Description: Go to a busy café or diner, or some other eatery, where you can sit near TWO other people, engaged in a conversation, a dynamic interesting conversation with tenstion… where something is happening between the two people… EAVES DROP on conversations – without being obvious. Find one that has something interesting going on. Anticipate spending at least 20-30 minutes listening in to this conversation.
From this conversation, listen carefully, pay attention to what is being said, what conflict is arising, what is expressed and revealed through the language. NOW, also pay attention to the people involved. What do they look like? What is their body language? Pay attention to all the details. Do not write anything at the busy café or diner. Just listen to what is said. Watch. Pay attention to all the details.
At a later time (when you get back home)
write a letter as if you are one of the people you observed in the café. Write the letter addressing the person that they were at the café with. This can be a love letter, a complaint, an email, an apology, an explanation, etc… For this exercise to work, you must have 1) chosen a conversation to listen to where something was HAPPENING and 2) you must really have spent the time, listening in on a conversation and paying attention to the dramatic tension… something between the two people must have been witnessed, heard, experienced, by YOU the writer. If not this letter will be flat, uninteresting, and lacking conflict. Write about something you heard or observed happening between the two people, but write about it as if you are one of the people in the conversation to the other. Write about some inherent need, conflict, obstacles. The letter can be a complaint, an apology, a .
The first column suggests traditional familyschool relationships an.docxssuser454af01
The first column suggests traditional family/school relationships and the second identifies a more collaborative approach. Provide an example of a situation (attendance, behavior problems, academic difficulties) that could arise at school and suggest how this issue may be resolved with a collaborative approach. Respond to at least two of your classmates’ postings.
.
The first president that I actually remembered was Jimmy Carter. .docxssuser454af01
The first president that I actually remembered was Jimmy Carter. I do remember as a child Ford being mentioned, but I was certainly not engaged in his presidency. However, I remember Reagan quite well. He came to office after a major financial down turn and his policies did seem to improve things immediately. Some have said that his actions of borrowing money were a hindrance to the future. Do you feel that Reganomics was beneficial to future generations or did he just borrow from the future in order to benefit his present circumstance? Did this set precedence for future presidents to take the nation into debt in order to help their political careers? I look forward to your thoughts?
.
The final project for this course is the creation of a conceptual mo.docxssuser454af01
The final project for this course is the creation of a conceptual model for an integrated afterschool childhood prevention, education, or intervention program (Boys and Girls Club, for example). The program serves a wide range of age groups (ages 4 through 17) and demographic backgrounds. Students should design a program that can appropriately address the needs of the various learners. This final project should include a program foundation, program description, research proposal, and self-reflection.
The final product represents an authentic demonstration of competency because it requires students to apply classic theory in order to compose an original program based on advanced developmental principles. The project is divided into
four milestones
, which will be submitted at various points throughout the course to scaffold learning and ensure quality final submissions. These milestones will be submitted in
Modules Three, Five, Seven, and Ten.
Main Elements
1.
Program Foundation:
a narrative/essay format that will describe the main concept of the program (prevention, education, intervention) and if the program will focus on a specific topic (math, English, drugs, bullying, coping skills for stress or anxiety, peer pressure, or your choice). This foundational narrative will provide citations that link the program concept to at least two of the classical theories presented in this course (Montessori, Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura, Bronfenbrenner). (approximately 3–4 pages)
·
What type of program will be the focus of this project? Will it be a prevention program to stop kids from using alcohol and drugs? To try and prevent bullying? Will the program be an educational model, for example, a program focused on improving educational outcomes like math, critical thinking, problem solving, science, language skills, or other? Will the program be an intervention model or a program that targets kids for problematic behaviors like truancy, acting out in class, running away, vandalism, minor theft, or underage possession of alcohol or substances?
·
Consider the critical tasks of development as laid out by the chosen theory that may help organize the approaches utilized for each age group.
2.
Program Description
: This section will provide specific descriptions of the elements (tasks, materials, activities) for the each developmental level spanning the age ranges from 4 through 17. These levels should be consistent with at least one of the two classical theories proposed in your program foundation narrative. (approximately 3–4 pages)
·
In what setting will this program be offered, for example, school setting, community center, treatment center, or a faith-based organization?
·
How will your topic differ across each developmental level?
·
How will you describe the activities, materials, and tasks that will take place in the program for each age range?
·
Are the age ranges consistent with at least one of the classic theories employed to guide this.
The finance department of a large corporation has evaluated a possib.docxssuser454af01
The finance department of a large corporation has evaluated a possible capital project using the NPV method, the Payback Method, and the IRR method. The analysts are puzzled, since the NPV indicated rejection, but the IRR and Payback methods both indicated acceptance. Explain why this conflicting situation might occur and what conclusions the analyst should accept, indicating the shortcomings and the advantages of each method. Assuming the data is correct, which method will most likely provide the most accurate decisions and why?
.
The Final Paper must have depth of scholarship, originality, theoret.docxssuser454af01
The document provides guidelines for a final paper assignment. It states that the paper must be 10-15 pages long, follow APA style guidelines, use 8-10 scholarly sources, and address specific topics related to the future of managed health care delivery systems. These topics include managed health care quality, provider contracting, cost containment, effects on Medicare and Medicaid, the future role of government regulations, and three recommendations for quality changes to Medicare and Medicaid plans. The paper must also include an abstract, introduction, conclusion, and separate reference page.
The Final exam primarily covers the areas of the hydrosphere, the bi.docxssuser454af01
The Final exam primarily covers the areas of the hydrosphere, the biosphere and the lithosphere. As in the Midterm, special attention should be paid to the lecture notes and the PowerPoint files, as well as the Discussion Boards. These sections are dependent on the text and the laboratory exercises, but the discussions and the lecture notes are more conducive to explanation and understanding with a essay-driven format. Additionally, the animated PowerPoints are good at achieving an understanding of processes that are in motion, especially when looking at the lithosphere, giving them more of a 3-dimensional quality.
For this final essay exam you are required to answer all five (5) of the questions. Although there is no set word limit for these essay questions, you will be graded on your knowledge of the material and the detail with which you write your answers. You should take care to cite your sources in APA format and provide full references in a Works Cited list.
Describe the paths of water through the hydrologic cycle. Explain the processes and the energy gains and losses involved in the changes of water between its 3 states. Operationally, we often most concerned with water does when it reaches the solid earth, both on the surface and in the sub-surface. Explain the relationship between the saturated zone, the water table, a ground water well and the cone of depression, all within the sub-surface.
The food chain is a valuable concept in biogeography. Give an example of a specific food chain, labeling the various levels of the food chain. After looking at characteristics of food chains, explain how a geographer’s approach to the study of organisms might be different than biologist’s study of organisms; what would each try to emphasize more than the other? What exactly is a biome? Compare/contrast the concept of the biome with that of the zoogeographic region. Compare/contrast the floral characteristics of 2 of the following biomes: Desert, Tundra, Midlatitude Grassland and Boreal Forest.
Theorize the difference in soil development in adjoining soils developed on forested, sloped area versus a grassed flat area. What are the soil-forming factors? Explain the importance of the nature of the parent material to soil formation and type. Then, cite at least 2 examples in which the influence of parent materials might be outweighed by other soil-forming factors. Explain the “struggle” between the internal and external processes in shaping the Earth’s surface. What are the different ways that the surface of the Earth is changed over time?
Describe the general sequence of events in continental drift since the time of 5 separate continents 450 million years ago. What is the difference between the older continental drift theory by Wegener and the more recent plate tectonic theory? Plate tectonics theory explains many seemingly unrelated phenomena. Explain how the patterns of volcanoes and earthquakes related to plate tectonics..
The Final Paper must be 8 pages (not including title and reference p.docxssuser454af01
The Final Paper must be 8 pages (not including title and reference pages) and should demonstrate an understanding of the reading assignments, class discussions, your own research, and the application of new knowledge. It must include citations and references for six to eight sources; one may be the text.
Micozzi, M. S. (2010). Fundamentals of complementary and alternative medicine. (4th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.
At least four must be from the ProQuest, EBSCOhost, or PubMed Central databases in the University Library, and the remaining sources must be from other scholarly or professional Internet resources.
For the Final Paper,
Complementary and alternative medicines >> (
Natural Products)
Provide a brief discussion of the protocols, and provide details of historical events that shaped the practice.
Chronic Pain
Describe the disease or condition from the CAM perspective
Include potential cultural challenges faced by the afflicted patient population as well as the practitioner.
Describe how the CAM (Natural Products) practitioner diagnoses and treats the condition.
Identify potential questions or skepticisms other health care providers and potential clientele may have regarding the CAM selected, and address the questions, supporting your responses with a minimum of two sources of research for the health condition and system chosen.
Identify and substantively describe a minimum of two other CAM practice interventions that could be suggested to assist in minimizing the impact of the illness/condition. Justify implementation of the two interventions you are recommending.
Must begin with an introductory paragraph that has a succinct thesis statement.
Must address the topic of the paper with critical thought.
Must end with a restatement of the thesis and a conclusion paragraph.
Must utilize six to eight sources; one may be the text, at least four must be from the ProQuest, EBSCOhost, or PubMed Central databases, and the remaining sources must be from other scholarly or professional Internet resources.
Must document all sources in APA style.
Must include a separate reference page that is formatted according to APA style.
.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Black mexico timesraceuniversity of new mexico press r
1. Black Mexico
TimesRace
University of New Mexico Press r Albuquerque
Edited by
BEN VINSON III
and
MATTHEW RESTALL
Colonial to Modernandsociety from
:ss
DESIGN AND LAYOUT: MELISSA TANDYSH
Composed in 10/13.5 Janson Text Lt Std
Display type is Bernhard Modern Std
Black Mexico: race and society from colonial to modern times /
edited by Ben Vinson III and Matthew Restall.
p. cm. — (Dialogos)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
is b n 978-0-8263-4701-5 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Blacks—Mexico—History. 2. Blacks—Mexico—Social
3. several months reviewing. Contained within the pages of his
report were
opinions that were probably consistent with the views of many
elites of
the time. In his estimation, the colony’s interior was crowded
with unem
ployed blacks who congregated on the outskirts of major urban
areas such
as Mexico City. He wrote that the best way of dealing with this
poten
tially troublesome lot was to be zealous in charging tribute,
which would
have the effect of pushing blacks to the coasts as they sought to
evade the
heavy burden of unwanted taxation.1 On the one hand Perez’s
comments
revealed an interesting understanding of the black predicament:
the quite
sizeable free black population found itself struggling to survive
financially
in freedom. Any efforts to circumscribe their freedom even
more (in this
case, through exacting straining financial demands) produced
visceral
reactions. Black populations would move in order to defend
their liberty.
But while Perez’s letter offered some astute understandings of
colonial
Dawn til Dusk
Black Labor in Late Colonial Mexico
From Dawn 'til Dusk 91
4. black life, they were also a bit misguided. He ignored some of
the com
plex realities of black life with which even he must have been
quite famil
iar. The colonial archives are filled with evidence of gainful
black labor
and enterprise. Indeed, urban blacks in particular were probably
found
employed more often than not.
However, as evidenced in Perez’s dispatch, it was easy for free
coloreds
to be misunderstood by their society. Even when they worked a
trade,
sometimes for the government itself, innocent and industrious
activity
could be egregiously mistaken for criminality and deviancy. In
October
of 1785, Leberina Azevedo, the wife of Vicente Medina, wrote
an impas
sioned letter to the viceroy begging that her husband, a free-
colored mili
tiaman, not be incarcerated and shipped to Puerto Rico for being
found on
the streets of Mexico City carrying sharp scissors. He was not a
vagabond
toting an illegal weapon she pleaded, but a hired employee of
the Royal
tobacco factory where he had responsibilities in the cigar -
making indus
try. He had been found simply carrying a tool of his trade.2
Similarly, at 8:00 p.m. on the night of July 20, 1789, Lucio
Antonio
Rodriguez (another black soldier) was apprehended on the
streets of Mex
5. ico City for carrying a knife. According to his testimony, he had
recently
gotten off work from the Royal custom’s house where he held a
job as
an artisan. Like Medina, his knife was his occupational tool,
and he had
been using it that evening to cut wineskins and boots at the
house of don
Juan Maranon. Rather than being caught committing a crime, he
had been
apprehended while innocently going about his daily business.
After sev
eral rounds of testimony lasting for over a year, proof of his
impeccable
character and service record were provided and all charges were
cleared.
However, until then, he had to endure the humiliation of being
dragged
through the courts.3 In a world where stereotypes and laws
inhibiting the
black population lingered, distortions regarding black laborers
and black
employment persisted.
From the standpoint of scholars, labor has been one of the great
top
ics of study regarding black life in the colonial Americas. In
many ways,
research on slavery has captivated and monopolized historical
scholarship,
yielding tremendously important results that have greatly
improved our
understanding of the colonial and modern worlds. We now know
more
about how slavery contributed to the development of capitalism,
global
6. economies, world systems, Western notions of modernity, and
colonial/
metropolitan relationships. We have sharper understandings of
how slavery
98 BEN VINSON III
contributed to the structuring of social hierarchies and racial
systems, as
well as how it impacted independence movements and the
mundane opera
tion of everyday politics."* But while slavery certainly
occupied a founda
tional and prominent role in the colonial black experience, it is
important
to remember that it was only a part of black life. Particularly in
the Latin
American context, free coloreds such as Vicente Medina and
Lucio Antonio
Rodriguez, comprised a substantial workforce that also strongly
influenced
broader social, political, and economic processes.* Their
activities in places
such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Cuba are well known but, in
other colo
nial contexts, such as Mexico, Bolivia, and Guatemala, their
worlds are
less understood. At least for Mexico, this is not necessarily due
to scholarly
neglect. Over the past several decades, a number of important
studies have
been produced that have either featured free coloreds, or have
included
them in broader analyses of regional and local economies.6
7. However,
few attempts at achieving a general synthesis of free-colored
labor have
been achieved.
This chapter is an initial attempt at expanding our knowledge of
free-
black Mexican labor, especially for the late eighteenth century.
There may
have been fewmoments in Mexican history that present better
circumstances
for evaluating free-colored labor. The 1790s marked the eve
ofindependence
and the close of the colonial era. If, as some have argued, the
eighteenth
century was a period of general prosperity in Mexico, where
greater social
mobility for blacks was possible due to a weakening caste
system, a stron
ger class system, and greater racial hybridity, then these years
offer one of
the richest opportunities to take the pulse of Afro-Mexican
socioeconomic
progress. Second, the production of an extraordinary colony-
wide census,
commissioned by viceroy Revillagigedo between 1790 and
1793, provides
an unparalleled opportunity to examine free-colored
occupational habits.
Since the census was raised to identify potential recruits for
military duty,
detailed information on women (including their professions)
was largely
excluded, as was data on the native population. Nonetheless,
combined with
other sources, such as parish registers and tribute data, the late
8. colonial
period is one for which we may be able to know the Afro-
Mexican popula
tion intimately.
It is important to stress that for Afro-Mexicans, the eighteenth
cen
tury was in many ways a mulato and pardo century and that, at
some level,
blackness and the black experience should be evaluated on these
terms. As
a colony, Mexico experienced tremendous demographic growth,
nearly
From Dawn ’til Dusk 99
doubling in size from four to seven million inhabitants between
the 1650s
and the late 1700s. The Afro-Mexican population grew, too,
more than
tripling from roughly 116,000 in the 1640s to almost 370,000 by
the
1790s.7 But with the decline of the slave trade after the 1640s,
much of the
expansion of the Afro-Mexican population came not through
substantial
increases in the shipment of new slaves, or by large measures of
endoga
mous natural growth among free blacks (negros), but rather
through the
miscegenation of existing slaves and free blacks with mestizos,
whites,
natives and other groups.8 By the 1790s, the Revillagigedo
census only
9. identified a scant five hundred morenos, or “pure blacks,”
throughout New
Spain, along with another 6,100 black “Africans.”9
Apart from being a mulatto century, one might also argue that
the
1700s were an era of Afro-Mexican success. Using the lens of
“success”
to discuss the black experience offers an important alternative
to some
traditional models of studying black life. Particularly in Latin
American
contexts, life after slavery is often processed within the
framework of
assimilation and mestizaje. Interpreting life after slavery
through the
“success” lens opens new opportunities for engaging blacks on
different
terms, notably ones that compel us to measure free-colored
populations
in light of their respective societies and that demand us to
reckon with
blacks as a group struggling for their own internal cultural,
political, and
social cohesion.
Two potential barometers for measuring black success rest in
com
paring the economic livelihood of blacks in the 1700s against
benchmarks
from the previous two centuries, as well as against the
conditions of black
life in the greater Atlantic world. In simplest form, an argument
can be
made that because so many of Mexico’s blacks were free in the
eighteenth
10. century, their liberty should be celebrated over the more
pervasive slavery
that governed a great deal of New Spain’s black life from the
1500s into the
1600s, and that shackled so much of the black population in
slave regimes
throughout the French and British Caribbean in the 1700s. Some
might
also be persuaded to argue that the very prevalence of black
freedom in
New Spain during the eighteenth century partially compensated
for the
many misfortunes that some blacks encountered when they took
marginal
and menial positions.
Of course, this vision of eighteenth-century black success in
New Spain
comes with some caveats. While most Afro-Mexicans were
indeed free dur
ing the 1700s, the truth is that slavery persisted as an institution
until 1829.
BEN VINSON IIIIOO
In the years preceding emancipation, anywhere from three
thousand to ten
thousand slaves worked in a range of professions including
mining, textiles,
and sugar cultivation. Some of the regions where slaves
continued working
included the cane fields of Cordoba, the developing frontier
areas of north
ern Alexico (Sonora, Durango, and Sinaloa), the textile center
11. of Queretaro,
as well as select coastal regions including Tamiahua and
Acapulco. As strict
trade controls and monopolies were removed from ports
throughout Mexico
in the eighteenth century, a small, renewed slave trade appeared
in tropical
regions like Tabasco. Essentially, what these factors mean is
that any dis
cussion of eighteenth-century Afro-Alexican success must be
situated in a
context in which slavery continued to exist, even if only on a
small scale. In
some of the locations where slavery remained visible, the
cultural impact of
the system may have borne implications upon free-colored
social relation
ships, as well as their prospects for advancement in society.
The meaning of free-colored economic progress must also be
situ
ated in a society characterized by great inequality. In broad
measure, the
eighteenth century was generally one of economic growth for
Mexico on
the whole. The colony ranked first among the world’s silver
producers and
mining triggered the development of a variety of industries,
includi ng agri
cultural, ceramic, and textile production. Yet at the same time,
the story
of Mexican economic progress was greatly disjointed. Equal
opportunities
were not available for all, and while more millionaires were
created in New
Spain than anywhere else in the Spanish empire, the Alexican
12. working
masses saw a 25 percent drop in real earnings during the last
half of the
eighteenth century, thanks in part to inflation, crop failures, and
epidem
ics. While some free coloreds were absorbed into the middle
class, others
who occupied the lowest strata of the economy were exposed to
extreme
income volatility, squalid poverty, and exploitation by a
supremely power
ful elite class. Was this a fate better than slavery? Indeed, was
this success?
Arguably yes, arguably no. However, such observations only
seem to beg
the question: to what degree should black success be measured
against the
benchmark of slavery or against the material opportunities and
livelihoods
of others who were free?10
The following sections, essentially a series of economic
narratives, do
not pretend to fully answer the questions raised here, but they
help pro
vide a context for resolving them. By providing a broad
understanding of
the general contours of free-colored economic life, and
highlighting the
roles that blacks played in specific local and regional
economies, we can
From Dnivn ’til Dusk io i
13. arrive at a better grasp of how free coloreds lived, articulated,
and defined
their freedom, as well as how they translated it into
opportunities that
intersected with the most powerful forces of the colonial
economy.
Colonial Snapshots:
A Portrait of New Spain's Free-Colored Labor Scene
Throughout the second half of the eighteenth century and up
until the
outbreak of the wars for independence, Afro-Mexicans
comprised roughly
io percent of New Spain’s population.” Table 5.1 provides
occupational
information on 11,730 free coloreds (mainly males) who came
from twenty
different provinces, districts, and urban centers throughout the
viceroy
alty (see Maps 5.1 and 5.2). Combined, these regions housed
approximately
64,000 free coloreds, or roughly 17 percent of the nearly
370,000 Afro-
Mexicans who lived in Mexico during the 1790s.”
In a predominantly agricultural society, it should not surprise us
that
agriculture was the largest arena of work for free coloreds.13
Entire prov
inces, such as Igualapa, Guazacoalcos (Acayucan), and Tampico
housed
scores of labradores (farmers) and baqueros (cowboys), almost
to the near
exclusion of other professions. Indeed, the labrador may have
been the
14. most common black male occupation in colonial Mexico. Using
census
records alone, it is hard to distinguish among the labradores and
baqueros
who owned their own plots or flocks, and those who were
sharecroppers,
hacienda laborers, and ranch hands.14 Of those who worked as
employees
on the larger estates, differences in salary existed between
seasonal work
ers and year-round hacienda residents. While seasonal workers
could gen
erally benefit from high wages paid during harvest seasons, they
did not
always have access to adequate housing and their employment
was irregu
lar throughout the year. Meanwhile, laborers who lived
permanently on
an estate might have enjoyed better lodging facilities and more
continual
employment, yet at the same time they could incur greater debts
there,
where they also typically bought their goods and wares. All of
the earnings
of agriculturalists and ranchers were further subjected to market
forces.
Fluctuations in product value and levels of occupational
experience also
affected wage differentials?5
Some of the free-colored agricultural workforce was mobile. As
evi
denced in regions such as the Pacific coast as early as the
sixteenth century,
black populations both enslaved and free, moved from estate to
estate, or
15. BEN VINSON III102
5.1. Free-Colored Labor in Late Colonial Mexico, 1780—
1794TABLE
Economic Sector
982 8.4
17 .1
6,160 52.5
Number of
Workers
170
1,961
101
306
230
76
11,730
1,113
133
17. Source: AGN, Padrones, vols. 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 35, and
37; AGN, I.G., vol. 53-A;
I.G., vol. 416-A, Acayucan, 1795, Biblioteca Nacional de
Antropologia y Historia (BNAH)
Archivo Judicial de Puebla, rollos 43-44, Tributes Expediente
formado en virtud de las
diligencias hechas por los alcaldes ordinarios al gobernador
intendente Don Manuel
de Flon, Puebla, 1795; Archivo Historico de la Ciudad de
Mexico (AHCM), Ciudad de
Mexico, vol. 1; Juan Andrade Torres, El comercio de esclavos
en la provincia de Tabasco (Siglos
XV1-XIX) (Villahermosa, Mexico: Universidad Juarez
Autonoma de Tabasco, 1994),
60-61; Jorge Amos Martinez Ayala, Epa! Epa! Toro Prieto, Toro
Prieto (Morelia: Institute
Michaocano de Cultura, 2001), 67-69; Bruce Castleman, “Social
Climbers in a Colonial
Mexican City: Individual Mobility within the Sistema de Castas
in Orizaba, 1777-1791,”
Colonial Latin American Review (CLAR) 10, no. 2 (2001): 242-
44; David A. Brading,
“Grupos etnicos: Clases y estructura ocupacional en Guanajuato
(1792),” in Historiay
poblacidn en Mexico (Siglos XVI-XIX), ed. Thomas Calvo, 256
(Mexico City: El Colegio
Transport and services
Construction
Metal, wood, pottery
Textiles, dress, shoes,
leatherworking
18. Arts and entertainment
Food and drink
Commerce
Administrative,
professional,
church, military
Agricultural, fishing,
and pastoral
Tobacco
Mining and refining
Mill workers3
Other industry13
Other
Unknown
Total
From Dawn ’til Dusk i°3
de Mexico, 1994); Wu, “The Population of the City of
Queretaro in 1791 f Journal of Latin
American Studies 16, no. 2 (1984): 293; Guillermina del Valle
Pavon, “Transformaciones de
la poblacion afromestiza de Orizaba segun los padrones de 1777
y 1791,” in Pardos, niulatos
y libertos, Sexto encuentro de Afromexianistas, 88-93 (Xalapa:
19. Universidad Veracruzana,
2001); and Juan Carlos Reyes G., “Negros y afromestizos en
Colima, siglos XVI-XIX,” in
Prcsencia africana en Mexico, ed. Luz Maria Montiel Martinez,
301 (Mexico City: Consejo
Nacional para la Cultura y Artes, 1993).
Note: The study includes seven cities (Guanajuato, Valladolid,
Queretaro. Orizaba,
Mexico City, Puebla, and Oaxaca), and thirteen
provinces/districts (Acayucan. Tabasco,
Guamelula, Tixtla, Acapulco, Tlapa, Chilapa, Motines,
Tampico, Colima, Igualapa,
Sanjuan del Rio, and Irapuato).
3 These workers were all in the mining industry.
11 Includes thirty-eight workers in the sugar industry, some of
whom were agriculturalists.
from village to village in search of better livelihoods.1*5 In
some instances,
black residential and occupational mobility even helped anchor
the devel
opment of certain townships, such as the village of Tonameca
located in
the Pacific province of Guamelula (see Map 5.1).17 By the
second half of
the eighteenth century, this town had come to possess the
highest popula
tion density of blacks in the district. Although market forces did
produce
important moments of opportunity that helped push and attract
black
agriculturalists to various parts of the colony, not everyone
heeded the
logic of the market. In the second half of the eighteenth century,
20. as cotton
and sugar production reinvigorated the Pacific basin’s economy,
causing
some free coloreds to move onto or near estates in areas such as
Zacatula
(see Map 5.1), others opted not to leave their homes or change
their long
established lifeways. In the province of Igualapa, also in the
Pacific basin,
as some blacks moved to take advantage of special economic
opportuni
ties, others solidified their roots in the orbit of the great estates,
forming
a number of black settlements in the Costa Chica whose cultural
legacies
remain felt even today.’8
New Spain’s black agricultural and pastoral workers included a
num
ber of individuals categorized as sirvientes (servants) and
operarios (work
ers) who labored on estates, small farms, and ranches. It was
generally
understood that many “servants” in rural areas did not always
perform
domestic labor, but also worked in the agricultural and ranching
profes
sions as assistants, peons, and farmhands. Their servant status
probably
signaled a lower position within the labor hierarchy. A few rural
servants
BEN VINSON III104
22. ib>J
qt>fi7
ib-d
J<w 1
y u c a t a^
«/Qv»^Cohe'.%T^ozotEan.
•Mqaco
‘GvaloSojam.
TABASCO
CHiAPA
A
• Acajuca.
f QUERETARO
CEIAYA -Z
Ne w Sp a in
• Mexico
•1W>Ca
(iUjA
VilkJotzl
m a p 5.1. Mexico’s provinces. Map drawn by Severine
23. Rebourcet.
UaMpico
CusmaxDzzi • Orizabax
SPAIN
CkiCapa.
. p .Ttwa.
■Acaputco
mo t i^e s^^y
_-4t Ac A7ULA
TABA^fer
>--x / fTLAPA
ACAPUlXO-^/S
V2lz—^l&VALAPA
m a p j.2. Mexico s cities. Map drawn by Severine Rebourcet.
From Dawn 'til Dusk 105
were more specifically categorized as sirvientes de trapiches,
meaning that
they worked on sugar cane mills. Operarios, meanwhile,
typically referred
to unskilled industrial workers and manufacturers, particularly
in urban
settings. But in the rural world of New Spain, many operarios
worked on
plantations, haciendas, and cotton estates—sometimes as
24. machinists, but
not necessarily. This intriguing group of all-purpose black
laborers prob
ably resembled the indiscriminate category of rural
“trabajadores" (work
ers) found in regions like Tabasco.’9
After the agricultural and pastoral professions, the second
largest
employment arena for the free coloreds surveyed in this sample
was min
ing (see Table 5.1).20 It is almost certain that as future research
allows us to
acquire more data on New Spain’s free-colored labor force,
mining’s role
will diminish within the hierarchy of eighteenth-century Afro-
Mexican
professions. As with the labradores and baqueros, the
particularities of the
census make it hard to distinguish among miners. The category
included
refiners, pick and blast men (who extracted ore from its
deposit), whim
minders (who hoisted ore from shafts), smelters, amalgamators,
foremen,
and peons alike. Needless to say, the skill level and pay scale of
these
workers varied tremendously. Virtually all of the mining jobs in
the data
sample were located in Guanajuato, the premier silver center of
the late
colonial empire. In the 1790s, Guanajuato had a large black
labor force,
much of which was born in the city or its surrounding province,
and that
had ancestral roots stemming back into the sixteenth and
25. seventeenth
centuries.21 Despite the presence of black miners in other areas
of the
colony, such as Taxco and Sultepec, it is unlikely that any
mining cen
ter in the eighteenth century came close to matching
Guanajuato’s black
workforce. Consequently, the total number of blacks in the
Mexican min
ing industry must have assuredly been overtaken by other
sectors of free-
colored employment.
Among these were the transport and service industries, which
included
porters, water carriers, muleteers, domestics, cooks, servants,
laundresses,
and coachmen (see Table 5.1). If complete employment
information was
available for women, we would also find more wet nurses,
nannies, house
keepers, and attendants.22 One surprise is that muleteers
(arrieros), who
have long been perceived as a niche profession for blacks, were
relatively
few among employed free-colored males in the transport
industry. Their
strongest representation came in the colony’s western highland
regions
(Tixtla, Tlapa, and Chilapa) and in Guanajuato, which possessed
over 250
io6 BEN VINSON III
26. black arrieros. Elsewhere, and especially in the major regional
market cities
of Puebla, Oaxaca, Valladolid, and Orizaba, muleteers were
almost absent.
What this suggests is that except for a few instances, many free-
colored
muleteers tended to live in smaller towns along major
thoroughfares that
tied together the colony’s primary markets.2* Another trend,
more notice
able in the Pacific highlands than elsewhere, was evidence for
the employ
ment of free coloreds as muleteers’ assistants de arrieros).
These
workers were mainly responsible for helping pack and feed the
animals,
while also assisting with driving mule trains from various
mountainous
passageways down to the colony’s coastal and heartland zones
Artisans in the textile, dress, leatherworking, and shoemaking
indus
tries competed fiercely with the service and transport sector for
third
place within the free-colored occupational hierarchy (see Table
5.1). These
professions included tailors, seamstresses, cobblers, textile mill
workers,
hatters, cloth cutters, needle makers, spinners, tanners, weavers,
and rib
bon makers, among others. Some of these trades, such as cloth
cutters
involved minimal expertise and were mainly considered to be
manufac
turing professions. Others demanded superior craftsmanship and
even
27. guild membership. During the colonial period, and especially
during the
eighteenth century, free coloreds were known to have access to
the upper
ranks of several guilds and many emerged as examined masters
in their
trades. However, in the census documents examined here, not a
single
free-colored master artisan was found among the 11,000-plus
laborers.2*
When combined with workers in the metal, woodworking, and
pot
tery sector, as well as candlemakers, wax producers, and cigar
makers,
the total population of free-colored artisans actually
outnumbered those
employed in the service and transport industries. Of course, the
lack of
information on women complicates matters.2* Like their male
counter
parts, free-colored women were also employed as artisans, with
perhaps
their heaviest representation coming in the textile industry.
There were
probably significant numbers of black female confectioners and
tobacco
factory workers as well. All of this begs the question: what was
the likely
impact of females on the overall free-colored workforce? It is
hard to say
with certainty, but it is highly probable that the number of
female artisans
never overtook the number of female service workers.26
Consequently,
women most likely affected the free-colored labor force by
28. substantially
increasing the representation of service and textile workers in
the labor
hierarchy. Moreover, it is likely that female representation
increased the
From Dawn ’til Dusk 107
A Tale of Four Cities: Free-Colored Big City Labor
No single colony in the Spanish empire had two urban centers
that rivaled
the size of Mexico City and Puebla in the late eighteenth
century and,
quite possibly, few could boast the economic diversity and
complexity of
Mexico’s four largest metropolises, including Guanajuato and
Queretaro
(see Map 5.2). All dominated the political and economic
landscapes of their
regions by buying goods and supplying manufactured wares,
furnishing
credit for business ventures, as well as administering the greater
affairs
of governance, justice, and military order. Collectively, these
centers also
offered opportunities that were simply unavailable in smaller
towns and
the rural countryside. Whereas one might be hard pressed to
find a sil
versmith, painter, or teacher in less populated zones, in New
Spain’s first-
order cities, such professions were more commonplace.
Similarly, whereas
only a handful of occupational options existed in smaller towns,
29. in places
like Mexico City there were well over six hundred different
professions
available between 1790 and 1842.28 Of course, the industrial
and service
functions of most cities meant that artisans and unskilled
laborers com
prised the lifeblood of urban economies. In a typical Latin
American
metropolis anywhere between 20 and 40 percent of the
population worked
as artisans, while another 30 to 40 percent were unskilled
laborers?9 As
might be expected, the status of these professions varied widely,
and argu
ments can be made that the social position of many artisans did
not match
their actual worth in the economy?0
By and large, free coloreds found themselves navigating the
colonial
urban world of honor, position, and status by maximizing and
exploit
ing whatever opportunities (big and small) their professions
allowed. As
a general rule, free blacks found some of their best access to
jobs in the
focal industries of the larger metropolises, in part because of
the cities’
overwhelming need to furnish workers in these trades. These
professions.
variety of trades to be found in the services, while raising the
number of
workers in both the food industry and petty commerce—women
worked
30. as waitresses, tortilla makers, street peddlers (selling stockings
and combs),
fruit vendors, and druggists, among other positions?7 With
female help,
the service industry probably surfaced as the second most
important free-
colored occupational arena (over mining), followed by the
textile-related
craft trades.
io8 BEN VINSON III
in turn, linked free coloreds professionally to large swathes of
the …
Genealogical Fictions
Limpieza de Sangre,
Religion, and Gender in Colonial Mexieo
Maria Elena Martinez
STANFORD UNIVERSITY PRliSS
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 2008
This book has been published with the assistance
of the University of Southern California
Stanford University Press
32. 305.5' r 2l-0890097.l.-dl'l-l-
l-007 0 3875 1
Typeset by Thompson Type in roll l- Sabon
•
To my parents,
Aurelia Lopez Corral and Nicolas Martinez Corral
To my grandparents (mis cuatro costados),
Fwrentina Corral Esparza, Severo LOpez Avitia,
Marla de JesUs Corral Corral, and Enrique Martinez Corral
And to the precious land, our patria chica, that gave us life
226 Purity, Race, and ereo/ism
candidate's baptismal information (with affidavits from priests)
b
III the latter half of the colonial period, which began in the
1670s,
?ecame a standard feature. As the seventeenth century dosed
these
Ish . d . . I ' par-recor s were mcreasmg y using the formula
"people of reason" "
"b " f 5 . d ' as In 0 pamar s and other castes of people of
reason" (bautismos
y demas castas de, de raz6n). The discourse of
lirnpleza de sangre and the colomal sistema de castas that it
inspired had
33. entered the Age of Reason.
CHAPTER NINE
Changing Contours
(Limpieza de Sangre' in the Age
of Reason and Reform
two decades ago, a series of paintings that are unique to
eighteenth-
rP''''",V Spanish America began to attract the attention of
students of
The which modern scholars have labeled "casta paint-
and was developed in the viceroyalty of New Spain. '
a growing metropolitan curiosity over the nature and in-
New World, Mexican artists produced the vast majority
paintings to represent the different "types" of people that sexual
«I"ioo" among Amerindians, blacks, and Spaniards had
engendered in
Americas. The main subject of the paintings, in other words,
was
population of mixed descent. The painters, a good number of
whom
were creoles,2 shared a concern with depicting how
reproduction among
.. the three main colonial combinations (Spanish-Indian,
Spanish-black,
and black-Indian) unfolded in the course of several generations.
To il-
lustrate this process of generational mestizaje, they relied on
34. multiple
panels-normally three to five for the first two units and several
more
for the third-and on the family trope. A typical series consisted
of six-
teen panels, each featuring a mother, father, and a child
(sometimes two);
an inscription providing the casta terminology for the particular
family
members; and a focus on skin color distinctions. The intended
audience
for at least some of the paintings was European, because several
of the
series were commissioned by colonial officials who intended
them as
gifts for relatives or institutions in Spain. l Casta sets were als o
destined
for the Real Gabinete de Historia Natural (Royal Cabinet of
Natural
History), which Charles III founded in Madrid in 1771 in order
to dis-
play objects from different pans of the world, including
Castile's over-
seas territories. Together with minerals, fossils, rocks, flora,
and other
u8 Purity, Race, and Creolism
products from the Americas, various paintings were shipped
across th
a?d consumed by a Spanish public. Yet some sets stayed in
lCD, Implymg that there was a local market for them as weJI.4
With the possible exception of only one series, by Luis de
35. Mella, Cast
paintings situated the different colonial lineages in secular
COntext a
They also have a strong ethnographic flavor. The European
interest ,.'.
b . n ? sc.rvmg, recording, .".'hieh in the eight:cmh century
IllsplCcd a number of sCIentific expeditions to the Amcncas,
was not
new. In previous centuries, the Western ordering impulse had
led to the
"natural histories" of all sorts of things, including plants,
animals, and
humans. What became increasingly common in the eighteenth
century
was the e.mphasis on the visual, on recording difference not
only through
taxonomIC systems but also through the catalogue. 5 As a genre
that most
certainly privileges vision in the production and representation
of ethno-
graphic distinctions, casta paintings appear to be a part of the
Enlighten_
ment project. But it would be a mistake to see them simply as a
product
of that project and of European encyclopedic and taxonomic
trends more
generally. Rather, as art historian Ilona Katzew has argued,
casta paint-
ings were largely the result of the growing sense of creole
identity and
identification with the local. 6
They must also be understood in connection to the
socioeconomic
36. context in eighteenth-century central Mexico, the changing
relationship
between metropole and colony, and the discourse of Iimpieza de
san-
gre. This chapter focuses on these issues. It stresses that casta
paintings,
which emerged during a period of deepening anxieties about the
shift-
ing social order, construct a narrative of mestizaje informed by
the dis-
course of purity of blood. They also reflect some of the changes
that the
concept of limpieza de sangre had undetgone in colonial
Mexico, most
notably its association with whiteness. The chapter emphasizes
that the
existence of multiple definitions of purity of blood, some
religious, oth-
ers more secular, helped fuel a creole patriotic defense of
Spanish-Indian
unions at a time of growing concerns about mestizaje and its
supposed
degenerating potential.
AN ICONOGRAPHY OF MESTIZAJE: PAINTINGS
AND THE INTERSECTION or RACE, CLASS, AND GENDER
At the end the seventeenth century, various Spanish arbitristas
(authors
of treatises on economic and fiscal reform) were convinced that
both
the Castilian state and economy were in crisis. They mainly
attributed
the country's lamentable economic situation to its failure to
develop its
37. Changing Contours 229
.Iu",i" and to its being reduced to exporting agricultural
products
return for manufactures. Politically, (he monarchy was weak
and
death of Charles II in 1700 plunged the country and other parts
of
into a war of succession {170I-13} between supporters of Arch-
of Austria and those of Philip of Anjou, respectively, the
!a and Bourbon contenders. By the second decade of the eight-
century, Spain had not only a new king, Philip V {1701-46}, but
a
",,' dyna",y in power. The Bourbons would devote a great deal
of time
to explain why the coumry had fallen behind other parts of
west-
and strategizing about how to strengthen the crown and the
. Their efforts would yield a series of reforms that had sweeping
in both Spain and its colonies.
The "Bourbon reforms," however, did not begin in earnest umil
af-
the middle of the eighteenth century. By then, Mexico had
already
undergoing important socioeconomic and cultural changes.
Demo-
ral,h.ealily the region wem from having a population of about
1.5 mil-
38. in 1650 to having between 2.5 and 3 million people in the early
The native population's "recovery" played an important role in
increase, as did the rapid numerical growth of people of mixed
an-
7 The demographic upsurge together with shifts in the economy,
.cludin! a rise in silver production that stimulated economic
activities
northern resulted in an expanded market for internal goods.
goods included textiles, most of which were produced in obrajes
manufactories) or domestic artisan establishments; pulque, the
Ico,holi·, beverage of pre-Hispanic origins; and tobacco, which
until
crown brought the industry under its control in 1765 was sold
by
shopkeepers and street vendors. The virtual self-sufficiency and
"",""di·ng market and productive capacity that Mexico enjoyed
in the
of the eighteenth century, not to mention the economic in-
it still had on other parts of Spanish America, made its political
economic elites confident about its future and not a little
arrogant
their capital's place in the hemisphere. The most prominent of
elites lived in Mexico City and Puebla, which had emerged not
as the viceroyalty'S main sociopolitical centers but as its
principal
of artistic production. 9 It was in these two cities that many of
the
40. "seat" of the Americas. Her male counterpart, the mulato
is likewise adorned with fancy attire, including a Spanish
and hat that rest on his left shoulder and arm. The figure looks
di-
into the eyes of the viewer as he holds a substance up to his
nose,
scent of which he is clearly appreciating. The substance is
tobacco, the
exotic import from the Americas to become a product of mass
con-
ompdon in western Europe,ll but one that Mexico produced
exclusively
internal market. Standing beside the male mulatto is a little boy
,.spi"g a wooden horse with one hand and a flag or streamer
with the
The two canvases were meant to function as a unit, thus
rendering
family triad that was to become characteristic of casta
paintings.ll
While the two Arellano representations of mulattos anticipated
casta
it was the work of the Mexico City artist Juan Rodriguez
(1675-1728) that first exhibited the principal traits of the genre.
"",most among these traits was a concern with depicting how
repro-
between people of different ancestries unfolds in the course of
generations. This process of ongoing mestizaje was represented
41. a sequence of separate images or family vignettes. Starting with
works belonging to the casta genre were produced as series,
normally consisting of separate canvases or copper plates. A
few
the different images on a single surface. Each image normally
fca-
a man, a woman, and their child. ll Some indude two children,
the standard family unit of casta paintings was a trinity. Series
were
in order to facilitate the ordering of the images.
each vignette included an inscription providing the no-
for the family members. Most casta sets, for example, begin
the representation of an elite Spanish male, an indigenous
woman
of high socioeconomic status, their offspring, and a title that
reads
f",m,,,hing like From a Spaniard and Indian [Woman] a Mestizo
Is Born
Espanal e India nace Mestizo) (fig. 5).
Casta sets are somewhat different depending on the painter and
pe-
riod in which they were produced, but they nonetheless share a
number
of underlying principles that produce a particular narrative of
mestizaje.
One of these principles is the idea that blood is a vehide for
transmitting
a host of physical, psychological, and moral traits. The most
explicit
42. series in this regard was by Jose Joaquin Mag6n, an artist from
the city
of Puebla who worked during the second half of the eighteenth
century.
One of the two casta sets that he completed indudes inscriptions
listing
the qualities that children supposedly received from one or both
parents.
FIG. 5· Jose de Ibarra, De espana/ e india. mestizo (From
Spaniard and
Indian, Me,tizo), ca. 1725. Oil on canvas, 164 x 91 cm.
SOURCE: Courtesy
of Mu,eo de America, Madrid.
Changing Contours 233
first painting, for example, starts with the message that in "the
;,.,,,i,,,, people of different colour, customs, temperaments and
lan-
are born" and then describes the mestizo born of a Spaniard and
won",,,, "generally humble, tranquil and straightforward." The
and last vignette in the unit explains that the Spanish boy, born
of
man and a castiza, "takes entirely after his father." He appar -
inherited nothing from his indigenous great-grandmother or any
of
ancestors. The next sequence of images begins by announcing
that
"proud nature and sharp wits of the Mulatto woman come from
White [male] and Black woman who produce her" and ends with
a
43. that features a child called torna atras (return backwards) and
that describes him as having "bearing, temperament and
r, "
Another idea present in casta paintings is that while mixture is a
po-
infinite process, it is not irreversible; returning to one of the
purity is possible. In particular, they allow for the possibil-
that a Spanish-Indian union can on the third generation result in
a
Spania<·d" if its descendants continue to reproduce with
persons of
descent. However, while admitting that reproduction with Span-
can also Hispanicize or whiten blacks, casta paintings as a
whole
that black blood inevitably resurfaces, that "blackness" cannot
entirely absorbed into Spanish lineages, or native ones fot that
mat-
The last generational unit of a typical series, which is
characterized
the total or ncar-total absence of Spaniards and by ongoing
reproduc-
between people of African and indigenous descent, normally
links
to incomprehensibility (as conveyed by terms such as "hold
r< in mid-air," "return backwards," "lobo return backwards,"
return backwards," "lobo once again," and "I don't get you")
in some cases to moral degencration.1'i
44. The narrative of mestizaje constructed by casta paintings also
de-
an the strong interdependence of race and gender. The first se-
Iqu"",,, of a typical set normally begins with the family of a
Spanish
and an indigenous female, and the second, with that of a
Spaniard
a black woman. Some representations of black men with
Spanish
''')me< do appear, but these are not common, and rarer still arc
images
of Spanish women with Amerindians. 16 That in the majority of
casta sets
,the Spanish-Indian and Spanish-black unions involve Spanish
males
. not only promotes the notion that elite white men were in
command of
the sexuality of all women (thereby emasculating other men),
but con-
Struct a gendered image of New Spain's three main populations.
Sexual
subordination essentiatty functions as a metaphor for colonial
domina-
tion. However, casta paintings gender indigenous and black
people dif-
ferently. Whereas the genre links the former to biological
"weakness"
FIG. 6. Andres de Islas [Mexican), NO.4. De espaiio/ y negra,
nace mufata (From
45. Spaniard and Black, Mulatto), 1774. Oil on canvas, 75 x 54 cm.
SOURCE: Courtesy of
Museo de America, Madrid.
Changing Contours 235
it implies that their blood can be completely absorbed into
Spanish
it associates blacks with strength and thus codes them more as
casta iconography imbues them with the power, for example,
",.m,mit their qualities to their descendants.
In some of the paintings that have images of domestic violence
(Fig. 6),
is mulatto women in particular who are masculinized. These
Ii tend to feature Spaniards serving black or mulatto women or
the victims of female aggression; they thus reverse traditional
gen-
roles and figure women of African ancestry primarily as
atavistic
violent forces. J7 Not all images of African-descended people in
casta
.intin.g' are negative, but the genre's inclusion of violent black
women
absence of similar representations of indigenous women are
consis-
with its overall privileging of the family, the images
. are generally characterized by patriarchal domestic harmony,
rank, and a return to purity. The implication that Spanish blood
be restored when it mixes with that of native people but
corrupted
that of blacks suggests that the paintings draw on a set of
46. notions
generation, regeneration, and degeneration.
In a sense, the genre offers a secularized recasting of Christian
my-
not only in that the family images are obviously a product of
imagination (joseph, Mary, and Jesus; Father, Son, and
Spirit) but in that the degeneration narrative can be read as a
kind
from grace, one that always begins with the sexual act. As in
thought, "the fall" is not irrevocable; redemption is possible.
Edenic ideal, embodied in the actual body of the Spanish male,
can
into a state of "barbaric heathenism" (if his descendants can-
to reproduce with native and black people), but it can also be
re-
. Spanish (Christian) blood has redemptive power. But again,
the
"",,",i1il:, of complete redemption is admitted only for Spanish-
Indian
and not for those involving blacks. From this perspective, the
of casta paintings is not so much the castas but the Spanish
male,
is warned that reproducing with black women can lead to the
loss
purity, and identity, to the corruption of his "seeds."
reveal the importance of the Spanish male within the
narrative as dramatically as the first canvas (Fig. 7) of a 1763
47. Cabrera It features a Spanish male [0 the
. woman [0 the right, and their daughter in the mid-
dle. l In the is a wall, and between it and the figures, a stall
with neatly arranged, luxurious Mexican textiles, indicating that
the
SCene takes place in a marketplace. The male, who stands
perfectly erect,
is turned toward the adult female. His right hand rests on his
daughter,
and with the left he points toward the indigenous woman,
displaying her
FIG. 7. Miguel [Mexi.canj, I. De espaiio/ y de india, mestiza
(From Spaniard
and Indian, Mestiza), 1763,011 on canvas, 132 x rOI em.
SOURCE; Private collection.
Changing Contours 237
the viewer of the painting. The Spaniard's face is not shown, but
his
"Slm"md hand gestures leave no doubt as to where his eyes are
fixed.
object of his gaze is the native woman, who returns the look
with
slightly raised eyebrow and somewhat flirtatious expression on
her
She holds her daughter by the hand and is standing in front of
the
of finely detailed textiles, as if she herself were a commodity.
The
48. girl, who is holding a Spanish fan and like her mother is dressed
in
iislpa"ic attire, looks at her father with an expression of
deference.
Both the positioning of the figures in relation to each arher and
body language create an idealized patriarchal order, one based
Aristarelian formulations of family and polity in which children
are
.b<"dlin,", to adults and women to men and in which the
authority
the father is linked to that of the king. The painting consists of
four
of vision: that of the Spanish man, which is directed at
woman; that of the latter back toward the Spaniard; that
also directed at the male figure; and that of the viewer of the
.h"i"g, whose eyes are first led to the mother and then to the
child
exoticized products from New Spain {the textiles in the back-
and the pineapple on the lower right corner of the frame}. These
,m,ii"" paradoxically position not the woman and child, which
are be-
displayed, but the Spanish male as the center of the painting.
Indeed,
is he who through the whole visual rhetoric of the painting-the
three
body language, the deployment of the male gaze, and the spatial
of humans and objects-is rendered as in command nar
49. the wealth and products of New Spain, but of the sexuality and
rep,wduction of the native female, his most valued possession.
Through its fetishized portrayal of barh the textiles and the
indige-
woman, Cabrera's painting hints at the process of creole class
for-
one fetish conceals the work that produced New Spain's
enterprises and therefore most of its wealth; the other hides
labor, dumestic and reproductive, that gave rise to a guod
number
Spanish colonial estates. The implied phallus in the painting,
the in-
through which some indigenous women were inseminated and II
which Spaniards were able in the course of a few generations
reproduce themselves, stands as a symbol of patriarchal control,
eco-
exploitation, and racial dispossession-a signifier of multiple and
overlapping structures of domination. Through the iconography
of pro-
ductive sexuality in the domestic sphere, Cabrera's casta set
thus exposes
the dynamic relationship of race, class, and gender and the
importance
of the Spanish appropriation of the labor and reproductive
capacity of
native women to the colonial order.
Purity, Race, and Creolism
50. born in (now Oaxaca), was eighteenth-century
MexICo s most promment pamter. He produced a large body of
officialJ
sponsored works featuring religious themes as well as portrait
painting;
including one of the Virgin of Guadalupe and another of the
Mexican writer Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz. Credited by some art
historians with taking casta paintings to their highest levels of
artis_
tic sophistication, Cabrera also was involved in introducing
important
changes into the genre. These changes include more attention to
emotion
and contact the figures, a stronger reliance on clothing
to mark socioeconomIC dtfferences, and a greater stress on
order and hi-
erarchy.2u Nonetheless, sets from the second half of the century
contin_
ued to convey the message that parents transmit a series of traits
to their
children through their blood, that after three generations the
descen_
dants of Spanish-Indian unions can return to the Spanish pole,
and that
black blood eventually stains pure lineages-ideas that were all
part of
the discourse of limpieza de sangre as it had developed in New
Spain.
The paintings also still generally offered a vision of Mexican
society in
which race, gender, and class intersected and in which Spanish
men's
control over female sexuality, especially over that of their own
women,
51. enabled the survival of colonial hierarchies. Paradoxically, the
period in
which casta paintings were produced was one in which those
hierarchies
and the very category of Spaniard were becoming highly
unstable.
TilE SISTEMA DE CASTAS IN FLUX AND
TIlE PROLIFERATION OF STATUTES AND STAINS
This instability of the sistema de castas in central Mexico was
partly
due to changes in marriage panerns and legitimacy rates. In the
capital
and Puebla, for example, marriages between Spaniards and
women of
partial African descent experienced slight but significant
increases in the
final decades of the seventeenth century. The church might have
played
a role in these increases, for it intensified its campaign to
compel couples
in informal unions to marry by threatening them with
excommunica-
tion.21 Thus, when in 1695 the Inquisition asked the bishop of
Puebla
to compile a list of the couples that had wed under those
circumstances,
it learned that during the preceding five years, twenty Spanish
men had
married African-descended women, free and enslavedY By the
start of
the next century, legitimacy rates among the broader casta
population
were rising, and Spanish women were taking men from other
52. groups as
husbands at higher rates than before. 2l Because the church had
a history
Changing Contours 239
upholding the principle of free will in choice of marriage
partners
parental wishes (a policy that the state had for most of
seventeenth century), families had no legal or Illstuutlonal
mecha-
to halt such unions, at least not yet. 24
The growing instability of the sistema de castas was also due to
the
complexity of colonial society, which witnessed a dramatic
surge
the population of mixed ancestry, the beginnings of a working
class
(especially in the northern mining towns and in Mexico City
Puebla), and increasing social mobility due to the expansion of
mer-
capitalism. Mobility went in both directions, however, and eco-
trends were by no means uniform. Improvements in mining and
ogrind"",,d production and greater integration into the Atlantic
econ-
gave Mexico modest but steady economic growth rates. But not
followed the same trajectory, and some experienced more
than growth. In Puebla, for example, signs of economic prob-
relatively early. In 1724, a number of Puebla's residents
53. regarding the city's downturn and the flight of many of its af-
vecinos, namely, business owners and merchants, to Mexico
City
OaxacaY The out-migration had been so large that a section of
capital, comprised of several neighborhoods, came to be known
as
Puebla."
According to those who testified, many of the Spaniards that
remained
inPu,bla had become impoverished, and the city itself had lost
some of
charm. Previously opulent homes had fallen into disrepair; the
popu-
had dropped significantly; and many private citizens, convents,
obrajes had been unable to collect rents on their properties
(some of
in the most exdusive streets) because of the shortage of
currency
the city. Viceroy Fernando de Alencastre Norona y Silva (1711-
16),
Duke of Linares, called attention to similar problems. Puebla,
he
in a 1723 report, was blessed with good agricultural production,
but many of its·industries, including its wool, soap, and glass
worksho.ps,
suffering because of competition from other regions and movmg
"el,e'Nh,,,,, Only the city's craft guilds were doing well. 2f,
Economic co?-
54. . . in Puebla took a turn for the worse in 1736, when harvest
fatl-
l d .. Z7 ures and an epidemic that hit the central region created
a 00 cnsls.
As the viceroy suggested, during these decades of economic
problems
and fluctuations, colonial officials looked to the craft gui lds as
models
- of order and regimentation. Especially strong in Mexico City
and Puebla
but also important in other cities, these bodies were in charge of
ing a good portion of the working population and thus played a
III
reproducing social hierarchies. In the capital, for example, one-
third to
Purity, Race, and Creo/ism
one-half?f working males participated in artisan crafts, which
despite
the growmg number of non-Spaniards owning their own shops
tend d
to be structured according to racial lines. 2S Even if master
artisans w.e
no longer all. Spaniards and creoles, and even if workers were
by
means exclusIvely people of indigenous and black ancestry the .
, "Im_
portam trad.es and obrajes were still controlted by people of
European
55. descent, whICh gave the semblance of order and the sense that
the sis_
de castas was alive and well. For example, the textile worksho s
III the Puebla-Tlaxcala basin, the Bajfo, and the Mexico City
area
almost all owned by Spaniards (who in the case of the fir st two
regio . I . I n,
were mam y penmsu ars married to wealthy creole wives), but
their
workforce consisted primarily of people of mixed ancestry and
black
29 surviving hierarchical nature of certain trade occupations
mIght explam why a num?er of them are represented in casta
paintings
of the second half of the eIghteenth century. The vision of order
that the
paintings project, however, was more illusion than reality, and
this be-
came especially evident as the colonial period dtew to a close.
The instability of the sistema de castas was parodied in a 1754
man-
uscript titled "Ordenanzas del Baratillo de Mexico" ("Decrees
of the
Baratillo of Mexico"), which turned the system of classification
on its
head, poked fun at its failure to work as intended, mocked its
effort
to create institutional exclusivity on the basis of blood-putity
laws
and invented castalike categories based on the marking of
("one-half Spanish," "one-quarter Spanish," and so forth).3(1
Although
the manuscript correctly identified cracks in the system, the
56. fluidity that
it conveyed did not apply to the entire population. Social
mobility did
not really affect the upper class, which was constituted by the
owners of
large estates and mines, wholesale merchants, high-ranking
royal offi-
cials and clerics, and large-scale retailers; nor did it apply to
the bottom
social levels, which mainly consisted of unskilled indigenous
manual lab-
orers. Fluidity …