Mechanism of hearing
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The document describes the mechanism of hearing and auditory pathway. Sound waves enter through the ear pinna and travel through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane. Vibrations are transmitted through the bony ossicles to the inner ear where they cause movement of the organ of Corti and auditory hair cells, generating nerve impulses. These impulses travel along the auditory pathway from the cochlear nerve to the brainstem and auditory cortex.
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Physiology of hearing [autosaved]
The document summarizes key aspects of sound physiology and hearing. It describes how sound is produced through vibration, propagated through media, and detected by the ear. It explains the functions of the outer, middle, and inner ear in transmitting sound vibrations and converting them into neural signals. The cochlea analyzes sounds by frequency using a traveling wave mechanism and hair cells that transduce vibrations into electrical signals sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Physiology of Hearing and Equilibrium
The organ of Corti contains outer and inner hair cells that transmit auditory stimuli through afferent pathways to the brain. Sound is conducted through the outer, middle, and inner ear before stimulating the hair cells. The vestibular system contains semicircular canals and otolith organs that detect head movement and gravity. It transmits signals through vestibular ganglia and nuclei to mediate reflexes for balance and eye movement. Both auditory and vestibular systems integrate sensory information in the brain to process sound and maintain equilibrium.
Physiology of hearing
The document provides an overview of the physiology of hearing. It discusses:
1) How sound waves are conducted through the external ear, middle ear bones, and inner ear fluid. The middle ear bones provide impedance matching to transmit sounds to the inner ear.
2) In the inner ear, sound causes the basilar membrane to vibrate, stimulating hair cells. This leads to a change in the hair cell membrane potential and the generation of action potentials in the auditory nerve.
3) Neural signals are transmitted from the cochlear nuclei to the auditory cortex through several structures in the brainstem and thalamus. The auditory pathway shows tonotopic organization and hemispheric specialization for
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This document discusses several deep neck space infections including Ludwig's angina, retropharyngeal abscess, and parapharyngeal abscess. Ludwig's angina is a rapidly progressing cellulitis of the submandibular space that can compromise the airway. Retropharyngeal abscess is a collection of pus in the retropharyngeal space, often caused by upper respiratory infections in children, and treated with antibiotics and incision and drainage. Parapharyngeal abscess has multiple potential causes and requires systemic antibiotics as well as intraoral or external incision and drainage.
Anatomy of nose and paranasal sinuses
The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses are described. The nasal cavity is divided into two nasal fossae by the nasal septum. Each fossa is bounded by bones including the maxilla, ethmoid, frontal, sphenoid and palatine. There are four paranasal sinuses on each side - the maxillary, ethmoid, frontal and sphenoid sinuses. The maxillary sinus is the largest sinus and is located within the body of the maxilla. The ethmoid sinuses are located within the ethmoid bone and are divided into anterior and posterior groups. The frontal sinus is an extension of the anterior ethmoid cells located within the frontal bone.
Eustachian tube, anatomy, test and disorders, dr.vijaya sundarm, 20.03.17
The document discusses the anatomy, physiology, and disorders of the Eustachian tube. It describes the Eustachian tube's embryological development and details its adult anatomy including measurements, parts, musculature, and blood supply. Regarding function, it ventilates the middle ear and drains secretions. Dysfunctions include tubal blockage from various mechanical or functional causes like adenoids, cleft palate, or barotrauma. Tests to evaluate Eustachian tube function include Valsalva, Toynbee, and tympanometry. Disorders include tubal blockage, retraction pockets, and a patulous tube.
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Physiology of Hearing and Equilibrium
The organ of Corti contains outer and inner hair cells that transmit auditory stimuli through afferent pathways to the brain. Sound is conducted through the outer, middle, and inner ear before stimulating the hair cells. The vestibular system contains semicircular canals and otolith organs that detect head movement and gravity. It transmits signals through vestibular ganglia and nuclei to mediate reflexes for balance and eye movement. Both auditory and vestibular systems integrate sensory information in the brain to process sound and maintain equilibrium.
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The document provides an overview of the physiology of hearing. It discusses:
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2) In the inner ear, sound causes the basilar membrane to vibrate, stimulating hair cells. This leads to a change in the hair cell membrane potential and the generation of action potentials in the auditory nerve.
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This document discusses several deep neck space infections including Ludwig's angina, retropharyngeal abscess, and parapharyngeal abscess. Ludwig's angina is a rapidly progressing cellulitis of the submandibular space that can compromise the airway. Retropharyngeal abscess is a collection of pus in the retropharyngeal space, often caused by upper respiratory infections in children, and treated with antibiotics and incision and drainage. Parapharyngeal abscess has multiple potential causes and requires systemic antibiotics as well as intraoral or external incision and drainage.
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The document summarizes the mechanism of hearing in three main steps: 1) Mechanical conduction of sound through the pinna, ear canal, and middle ear bones, which function as an acoustic transformer to increase sound pressure; 2) Transduction of mechanical energy into electrical impulses by hair cells in the cochlea; 3) Conduction of electrical impulses through the auditory nerve pathway to the brain. It then describes four historical theories of hearing: Helmholtz's place theory in which different frequencies excite different regions of the cochlea, Rutherford's frequency theory in which all frequencies activate the entire cochlea, Wever's volley resonance theory involving asynchronous discharges, and von
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The external ear funnels sound waves through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane. The middle ear contains the auditory ossicles that transmit vibrations through the bones to the inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, which converts sound waves into neural signals through hair cells and stereocilia in the organ of Corti that transmit signals to the auditory nerve.
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The ear consists of three main parts - the outer, middle, and inner ear. Sound waves enter the outer ear and cause the tympanic membrane in the middle ear to vibrate. These vibrations are amplified by the ossicles and transmitted through the oval window to the cochlea of the inner ear. Within the cochlea, vibration of the fluid causes movement of hair cells which stimulate nerves for sound perception. The vestibular system detects head movement and maintains balance.
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The larynx houses the vocal cords, and manipulates pitch and volume, which is essential for phonation. It is situated just below where the tract of the pharynx splits into the trachea and the esophagus.
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The external ear consists of the pinna and external auditory canal. The pinna has prominent features like the helix, antihelix and lobule. The external auditory canal is cartilaginous in the outer one-third and bony in the inner two-thirds. The tympanic membrane separates the external ear from the middle ear. It has three layers and is angled obliquely in the canal. Nerves that supply the external ear and tympanic membrane include the auriculotemporal, vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves.
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The document discusses the physiology of hearing. It covers the key components required for normal hearing including sound conduction through the ear canal, middle ear, and inner ear. The middle ear acts as an impedance matcher and sound intensity transducer. The cochlea contains hair cells that transduce sound waves into neural signals. The basilar membrane varies in width and stiffness along its length to allow different frequencies to stimulate separate regions of the cochlea.
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The document summarizes the physiology of the external, middle, and inner ear in 3 sentences:
The external ear funnels sound waves through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane. The middle ear contains the auditory ossicles that transmit vibrations through the bones to the inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, which converts sound waves into neural signals through hair cells and stereocilia in the organ of Corti that transmit signals to the auditory nerve.
Endoscopic single handed septoplasty with batten graft for caudal
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Restrictive lung diseases (interstitial lung diseases)
Histological Structure of Alveoli
The wall of the alveoli is formed by a thin sheet of tissue separating two neighbouring alveoli.
This sheet is formed by epithelial cells and intervening connective tissue.
Collagenous , reticular and elastic fibres are present.
Between the connective tissue fibres we find a dense, anastomosing network of pulmonary capillaries. The wall of the capillaries are in direct contact with the epithelial lining of the alveoli.
Neighbouring alveoli may be connected to each other by small alveolar pores (pores of Kohn).
The epithelium of the alveoli is formed by two cell types:
Alveolar type I cells (small alveolar cells or type I pneumocytes) are extremely flattened and form the bulk (95%) of the surface of the alveolar walls.
Alveolar type II cells (large alveolar cells or type II pneumocytes) are irregularly (sometimes cuboidal) shaped.
They form small bulges on the alveolar walls.
Type II alveolar cells contain are large number of granules called cytosomes (or multilamellar bodies), which consist of precursors to pulmonary surfactant (the mixture of phospholipids which keep surface tension in the alveoli low) .
Cilia are absent from the alveolar epithelium and cannot help to remove particulate matter which continuously enters the alveoli with the inspired air. Alveolar macrophages take care of this job. They migrate freely over the alveolar epithelium and ingest particulate matter.
FUNCTIONS OF PULMONARY CELLS
Type I pneumocytes
Permeable to Oxygen and CO2, do not divide
Type II pneumocytes
Reserve cells
secrete pulmonary surfactant
Serve as repair cells
Alveolar macrophages
Phagocytosis
Pores of Kohn (allow passage of Macrophages)
07 respiratory obstructive2
Asthma
A chronic relapsing inflammatory disorder characterized by:
Hyper-reactivity of the respiratory tree to various stimuli leading to
Reversible airway obstruction
Obstruction produced by combination of :
Constriction of bronchial musculature (bronchospasm)
Mucosal inflammation (edema)
Excessive secretion of mucus.
Clinically Manifested by :
Difficulty in breathing (Dyspnea)
Wheeze (a soft whistling sound during expiration)
Difficulty in expiration.
Asthma is:
Episodic and reversible airway disease
Primarily targets the bronchi and terminal bronchioles
MC chronic respiratory disease in children
Two types:
Extrinsic asthma (allergic, atopic)
Intrinsic asthma (non-allergic asthma or idiosyncratic asthma)
06 respiratory obstructive1
Obstructive diseases : Chr.by
Obstruction to airflow out of the lungs
Due to partial or complete obstruction in airway.
Increase in lung compliance and
Decrease in lung elasticity.
Restrictive diseases : Chr by
reduced expansion of lung parenchyma with problems in getting air in the lungs.
Lung compliance is decreased
Elasticity is increased: once air is in the lungs it comes out rapidly on expiration.
05 respiratory tumors
Tumors of lung
Malignant tumors of lung
Primary
Metastatic
Metastatic lung cancer
More common* than primary lung cancer.
Breast cancer (MCC)
Renal Cell carcinoma
Choriocarcinomas
Colorectal carcinomas
Appear as: "Cannon Balls” On X rays
04 respiratory infection2
This document discusses several types of pneumonia including nosocomial, aspiration, and lung abscess pneumonia. It provides details on causative organisms, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis and treatment. Key points include:
- Nosocomial pneumonia is associated with immunosuppression, antibiotics, and respirators. Common organisms are E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and S. aureus.
- Aspiration pneumonia results from gastric content aspiration and is characterized by necrotizing inflammation. Causative organisms include a mixture of oral aerobes and anaerobes like Bacteroides and S. pneumoniae.
- Lung abscesses develop most commonly from aspiration or
03 Respiratory infection1
Pneumonia
Three Types of Classification of pneumonias
Clinical
Morphological (distribution of inflammatory foci)
Etiological
02 respiratory vascular
Chronic passive pulmonary congestion (CVC lung)
Pulmonary edema
Pulmonary thrombo-embolism and infarction
Pulmonary hypertension
Pulmonary hemorrhage*
01 respiratory RDS
1. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a clinical syndrome characterized by diffuse alveolar capillary damage and severe pulmonary edema, resulting in hypoxemia that is refractory to oxygen therapy.
2. ARDS is caused by direct or indirect injury to the lungs from sources such as sepsis, gastric aspiration, trauma, or smoke inhalation. This causes damage to the alveolar capillary endothelium and epithelium.
3. The damage leads to increased capillary permeability, leakage of fluid into the alveoli, and formation of hyaline membranes. This results in impaired gas exchange and respiratory failure.
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5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
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