This technical note explains how to convert between mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate units, given different temperature and pressure conditions. Mass flow sensors measure mass transfer rate, but volumetric units are commonly used by specifying a standard temperature and pressure. The note defines relevant terms, shows calculations to convert between mass and volumetric units, and emphasizes the importance of consistent reference conditions when using different flow sensors or controllers in a system.
ASSESSMENT OF CORRELATION FOR CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH MINI CHANNELJournal For Research
The heat transfer characteristic of R32, R22 and R152a during condensation were experimentally investigated in a horizontal mini channels. The experiments used different parameters like saturation temperature, mass flux, vapour quality, channel diameter, channel geometry and thermos physical properties on the heat transfer coefficients. Several literatures are used to find a assessment correlations. Condensation heat transfer correlations and theoretical solutions are used to predict the experimental data in this research.
ASSESSMENT OF CORRELATION FOR CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH MINI CHANNELJournal For Research
The heat transfer characteristic of R32, R22 and R152a during condensation were experimentally investigated in a horizontal mini channels. The experiments used different parameters like saturation temperature, mass flux, vapour quality, channel diameter, channel geometry and thermos physical properties on the heat transfer coefficients. Several literatures are used to find a assessment correlations. Condensation heat transfer correlations and theoretical solutions are used to predict the experimental data in this research.
Complex Engineering Problem (CEP) Descriptive Form.
Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer.
The concentric tube heat exchanger is replaced with a compact, plate-type heat exchanger that consists of a stack of thin metal sheets, separated by N gaps of width a. The oil and water flows are subdivided into N/2 individual flow streams, with the oil and water moving in opposite directions within alternating gaps. It is desirable for the stack to be of a cubical geometry, with a characteristic exterior dimension L.
(a) parallel flow
(b) counter flow,
A counter flow, concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the lubricating oil for a large industrial gas turbine engine. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube (Di - 25 mm) is 0.2 kg/s,.
Flash Steam and Steam Condensates in Return LinesVijay Sarathy
In power plants, boiler feed water is subjected to heat thereby producing steam which acts as a motive force for a steam turbine. The steam upon doing work loses energy to form condensate and is recycled/returned back to reduce the required make up boiler feed water (BFW).
Recycling steam condensate poses its own challenges. Flash Steam is defined as steam generated from steam condensate due to a drop in pressure. When high pressure and temperature condensate passes through process elements such as steam traps or pressure reducing valves to lose pressure, the condensate flashes to form steam. Greater the drop in pressure, greater is the flash steam generated. This results in a two phase flow in the condensate return lines.
ECONOMIC INSULATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PIPINGVijay Sarathy
Thermal Insulation for Industrial Piping is a common method to reduce energy costs in production facilities while meeting process requirements. Insulation represents a capital expenditure & follows the law of diminishing returns. Hence the thermal effectiveness of insulation needs to be justified by an economic limit, beyond which insulation ceases to effectuate energy recovery. To determine the effectiveness of an applied insulation, the insulation cost is compared with the associated energy losses & by choosing the thickness that gives the lowest total cost, termed as ‘Economic Thickness’.
The following tutorial provides guidance to estimate the economic thickness for natural gas piping in winter conditions as an example case study.
Complex Engineering Problem (CEP) Descriptive Form.
Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer.
The concentric tube heat exchanger is replaced with a compact, plate-type heat exchanger that consists of a stack of thin metal sheets, separated by N gaps of width a. The oil and water flows are subdivided into N/2 individual flow streams, with the oil and water moving in opposite directions within alternating gaps. It is desirable for the stack to be of a cubical geometry, with a characteristic exterior dimension L.
(a) parallel flow
(b) counter flow,
A counter flow, concentric tube heat exchanger is used to cool the lubricating oil for a large industrial gas turbine engine. The flow rate of cooling water through the inner tube (Di - 25 mm) is 0.2 kg/s,.
Flash Steam and Steam Condensates in Return LinesVijay Sarathy
In power plants, boiler feed water is subjected to heat thereby producing steam which acts as a motive force for a steam turbine. The steam upon doing work loses energy to form condensate and is recycled/returned back to reduce the required make up boiler feed water (BFW).
Recycling steam condensate poses its own challenges. Flash Steam is defined as steam generated from steam condensate due to a drop in pressure. When high pressure and temperature condensate passes through process elements such as steam traps or pressure reducing valves to lose pressure, the condensate flashes to form steam. Greater the drop in pressure, greater is the flash steam generated. This results in a two phase flow in the condensate return lines.
ECONOMIC INSULATION FOR INDUSTRIAL PIPINGVijay Sarathy
Thermal Insulation for Industrial Piping is a common method to reduce energy costs in production facilities while meeting process requirements. Insulation represents a capital expenditure & follows the law of diminishing returns. Hence the thermal effectiveness of insulation needs to be justified by an economic limit, beyond which insulation ceases to effectuate energy recovery. To determine the effectiveness of an applied insulation, the insulation cost is compared with the associated energy losses & by choosing the thickness that gives the lowest total cost, termed as ‘Economic Thickness’.
The following tutorial provides guidance to estimate the economic thickness for natural gas piping in winter conditions as an example case study.
Orifice flow meters are one of the most commonly used flow measurement devices used in the industry. Flow measurement by orifice not only needs compensation for temperature and pressure but also correction for inaccurate calculations which can lead to errors as high as 20%. This article will simplify those calculation into a ready to use formula.
CONTROL VALVE SIZING AND SELECTION FOR ANY APPLICATION.pptNagalingeswaranR
CONTROL VALVE BASICS.INCLUDING SIZIND, DETAILING AND SELECTION OF MATERIAL.THIS IS APPLICABLE FOR ALL APPLICATIONS LIKE UTILITY, POWER, WATER AND REFINERY. FROM THE PRESENTATION THE DESIGN ENGINEER CAN DECIDE THE TYPE OF CONTROL VALVE AND ITS CHARACTER TO BE SELECTED FOR THE GIVEN APPLICATION.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR SETTLE OUT CONDITIONS TUTORIALVijay Sarathy
Centrifugal Compressors are a preferred choice in gas transportation industry, mainly due to their ability to cater to varying loads. In the event of a compressor shutdown as a planned event, i.e., normal shutdown (NSD), the anti-surge valve is opened to recycle gas from the discharge back to the suction (thereby moving the operating point away from the surge line) and the compressor is tripped via the driver (electric motor or Gas turbine / Steam Turbine). In the case of an unplanned event, i.e., emergency shutdown such as power failure, the compressor trips first followed by the anti-surge valve opening. In doing so, the gas content in the suction side & discharge side mix.
Therefore, settle out conditions is explained as the equilibrium pressure and temperature reached in the compressor piping and equipment volume following a compressor shutdown
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Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
1. Technical Note
Mass Flow Sensors: Mass Flow versus Volumetric Flow and
Flow Rate Unit Conversions
Sensing and Control
1.0 Introduction
This technical note explains the following:
How mass flow is measured with volumetric units at
standard conditions.
How to convert between volumetric units at standard
conditions of 0 ºC, 1 atm, and nonstandard temperature
and pressure conditions.
How to convert between volumetric units at standard
conditions of 0 ºC, 1 atm, and an alternative standard
temperature and pressure conditions.
How to convert from volumetric units to mass units.
Honeywell mass flow sensors use a silicon sense die
construction known as a microbridge to measure the rate of
mass transfer in a fluid.
Mass flow is a dynamic mass/time unit measured in grams per
minute. It is common in the industry to specify mass flow in
terms of volumetric flow units at standard (reference)
conditions. By referencing a volumetric flow to a standard
temperature and pressure, an exact mass flow (g/min) can be
calculated from volumetric flow.
The temperature and pressure reference conditions of the
volumetric unit do not imply nor do they require the pressure
and temperature conditions of the measured fluid to be the
same; they are simply part of the volumetric unit that is
required to specify mass from a measured volume.
Honeywell mass flow sensors are generally specified as having
volumetric flow units at standard reference conditions of 0°C
and 1 atm. This is indicated on volumetric units with the "S"
prefix. For example:
SCCM "Standard Cubic Centimeters (per) Minute"
Reference Conditions: 0 °C, 1 atm
SLPM "Standard Liters (per) Minute"
Reference Conditions: 0 °C, 1 atm
If a certain application requires nonstandard reference
conditions, the units will be specified in the device datasheet
without the “S” prefix and the reference conditions will be
called out. The “@” symbol will be used to indicate the
volumetric unit reference conditions for temperature and flow.
For example:
CCM @ 21°C, 101.325 kPa
LPM @ 20 °C, 1013.25 mbar
When designing an application around a mass flow sensor, it is
critical to use consistent reference conditions for volumetric
units throughout the system. There is no industry standard for
the reference conditions indicated by “SCCM” or “SLPM”, they
must be explicitly determined.
Consider a Honeywell mass flow sensor which has output
calibrated for a full scale of 1000 SCCM. If this sensor is used
in a system with a mass flow controller that has a Full Scale of
1000 SCCM (defined by the manufacturer as using a reference
condition of 25°C, 1 atm), then without converting units, the
system error will be more than 9% of reading.
Rather, the mass flow controller output should be converted to
Honeywell Standard SCCM by scaling the output, or the
sensor output could be converted to CCM @ 25 °C, 1 atm by
using the inverse scale factor, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Mass Flow Controller Setpoint versus Mass Flow
Sensor Output
2. Mass Flow versus Volumetric Flow and Flow Rate Unit
Conversions
2 Honeywell Sensing and Control
2.0 Finding True Mass Flow (g/min) from Volumetric
Flow (Q) Definitions
P = Pressure
V = Volume (cm
3
)
n = Number of moles of gas
R = Gas constant .0821 (liters • atm/mole • °K) or
82.1 (cm
3
• atm/mole • °K)
T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin (°K)
ρ = Gas density (g/cm
3
)
m = Mass in grams (g)
m = Mass flow (g/min)
m = Mass flow (g/min)
Q = Volumetric flow
Qs = Volumetric flow at standard conditions (SCCM)
Equation 1
Using the Ideal Gas Law, PV = nRT, solve for:
Volume (V), or:
V =
nRT
P
Equation 2
Gas density is defined as:
ρ =
m
v
Equation 3
Substitute Equation 1 into Equation 2 to redefine gas density:
ρ =
mP
nRT
Equation 4
Mass flow is equal to density times volumetric flow rate:
m = ρ · Q
Equation 5
Redefine mass flow using gas density as derived from the
Ideal Gas Law. Substitute Equation 3 into Equation 4:
m =
mP
nRT
· Qx
Example 1
Assume a volumetric flow rate of Q = 200 cm
3
/min of nitrogen
(N2) at standard temperature of 0 °C and 1 atm, and solve for
true mass flow (g/min):
Given:
Q = 200 cm
3
/min
m = 28.0134 g in 1 mole of N2
n = 1 mole
P = 1 atm
R = 82.1 (cm
3
• 1 atm)/(mole • °K)
T = 273.15 °K(0 °C)
Answer:
m = 0.2498 (g/min)
3.0 Finding Volumetric Flow (Q) from True Mass Flow
(g/min)
Microbridge products are specified in “standard” volumetric
flow (Qs) such as standard cubic centimeters per minute
(SCCM) or standard liters per minute (SLPM) which can be
translated into true mass flow as indicated above.
The microbridge sensor is a mass flow device rather than a
volumetric one. At a constant mass flow, the microbridge
device will give the same output even if there are temperature
or pressure changes. Because the microbridge sensor senses
mass flow, confusion may result when mass flow sensors are
used with volumetric devices, such as rotometers or pith-ball
indicators. Accurate mass flow calculations for volumetric
devices require consideration of both temperature and
pressure ranges.
At varying temperatures and pressures, these other volumetric
devices indicate different flow rates than those indicated by
microbridge sensors. Simple calculations can be used to show
the relationship between mass flow and “nonstandard”
volumetric flow.
An AWM3100V with a mass flow rate of 0.2498 g/min
(200 SCCM) at the same pressure of 1.0 atm but at a different
temperature, 25 °C, has a 5 Vdc output voltage, indicating a
standard flow rate(Qs) of 200 SCCM. The rotometer, however,
would indicate a nonstandard volumetric flow rate, (Q).
Use Equation 5 to rearrange the formula for the volumetric flow
value to calculate the rotometer nonstandard volumetric flow
rate.
Equation 6
Q =
nRT
mP
m·
Use the following given values to calculate volumetric flow rate
(Q). Multiply the R value by 1000 to convert the number to cm
3
:
Given:
m = 0.2498 (g/min)
m = 28.0134 grams in 1 mole of N2
n = 1 mole
P = 1.000 atm
R = 82.1 (cm
3
• 1 atm)/(mole • °K)
T = 273.15 °K(0 °C) + 25 °C = 298.15 • °K
Answer: Q = 218.26 cm
3
/min
In this example, the standard volumetric flow rate (Qs) is
200 cm
3
/min while nonstandard volumetric flow rate increases
to 218.26 cm
3
/min.
^
^
3. Mass Flow versus Volumetric Flow and Flow Rate Unit
Conversions
3 Honeywell Sensing and Control
This increase reflects the fact that as temperature increases,
gas expands, placing more distance between gas molecules.
More distance between molecules means less mass in a given
volume as temperature increases. If mass flow is kept
constant, and temperature increases, volume flow increases to
pass the same amount of mass (molecules) across the sensor
(see Figures 2 and 3).
Figure 2. Molecules at Cold Temperature: Mass Flow
Constant, Volumetric Flow Decreases
Sensor
Mass
Flow
Figure 3. Molecules at Hot Temperature: Mass Flow
Constant, Volumetric Flow Increases
Sensor
Mass
Flow
4.0 Finding volumetric Flow (Qx) from “Standard”
Volumetric Flow (QS):
Nonstandard volumetric flow can be found with standard
volumetric flow using the ratio of temperature and pressure at
referenced conditions (0 °C, 1 atm) versus “X” conditions of
temperature and pressure.
This method of determining volumetric flow eliminates the use
of gas density values at reference conditions (0°C, 1 atm)
versus “X” conditions of temperature and pressure.
FURTHER DEFINITIONS
Qx = Volumetric flow at X conditions of pressure and
temperature
Qs = Volumetric flow at standard conditions of 0 °C and 1 atm
Tx = Temperature at “X” conditions in °Kelvin (°K)
Ts = Temperature at standard conditions in °Kelvin (°K)
Px = Pressure at “X” conditions in °Kelvin (°K)
Ps = Pressure at standard conditions in °Kelvin (°K)
If mass flow is held constant over temperature and
pressure, then the following is true:
ms = mx
That is,
ms mass flow, at standard conditions is equal to
mx mass flow at nonstandard X conditions of temperature
and pressure.
Therefore,
· Qx =mPx
nRTx
mPs
nRTs
Equation 7: Solving for Qx yields:
Qx = Qs ·
Tx
Ts
Ps
Px
·
Equation 7
Equation 7 calculates volumetric flow (Qx) at “X” conditions
from volumetric flow (Qs) at reference conditions of 0 °C and 1
atm.
Given:
Qs = 200 SCCM
Ps = 1 atm
Px = 1 atm
Ts = 273.15 °K (0 °C)
Tx = 298.15 °K (25 °C)
Answer:
Qx = Qs ·
Tx
Ts
Ps
Px
· = 218.3 cm3
/min