Abstract—This paper provide to what I learned in Managerial Psychology class and how to involve in real life. People can see sort of theory and model and their descriptions. I'm going to show you 6 critical topic behind descriptions and how to behave making them.

1. Managerial Psychology
Caner Kaya
Tallinn University of Technology
canerkaya89@gmail.com
Abstract—This paper provide to what I learned in
Managerial Psychology class and how to involve in real life.
People can see sort of theory and model and their
descriptions. I'm going to show you 6 critical topic behind
descriptions and how to behave making them.
Keywords-component :Managerial Psychology ; Servant
Leadership; Organizational Culture ; Decision-Making; Time
Management ; Change Management ; Work Motivation :
Stress at work .
I. INTRODUCTION
Managerial psychology examines the structure and
function of the organization and behaviours of
individuals and groups within it. Many models and
behavioral techniques used are taken from industrial
psychology, human relations psychology and system
theories. Globalization changed many structures, as well
as working rituals. Needs emerged for people to work
more productively and to create a more peaceful working
environment. Cooperating companies started to meet the
needs of their employees with the fear to lose their
workers. This prepared the foundation for warmer
working environments. In old times, managers were strict
and they avoided listening their employees. Today,
managers want to understand their employees. This is not
happening only in the business world, today, leaders from
raising children to managing country become more
humane and they listen to the opinions of the other.
II. SERVANT LEADERSHIP
A. Description of Servart Leardership
Building on the work of Greenleaf (1991), in the
seminal work of him titled “The Servant as Leader,”
,published in 1970 for the first time:
‘The Servant-Leader is servant first… It begins with
the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first.
Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead… The
best test, and difficult to administer is this: Do those
served grow as persons? Do they, while being served,
become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, and
more likely themselves to become servants? And, what is
the effect on the least privileged in society? Will they
benefit, or at least not further be harmed?’
Ten properties of a servant leader were listed by
Spears (2004): empathy, listening, curing, awareness,
persuasiveness, conceptualization, insight, safekeeping,
commitment, community building.
? Listening is to emphasize the priority and
importance of communication and to seek for
identifying the people’s will.
? Empathy is to understand other people and
accept their nature.
? Curing is to be able to help become a whole
? Awareness is the status of awakening
? Persuasiveness is to seek for affecting others
depending on arguments not based on the power
of position.
? Conceptualization is to think for longer term
than today’s needs and to extend this to an
expected future.
? Insight is to foresee the results of actions and
developments and to work with instinct.
? Safekeeping is to hold something safe and to
serve the other people’s necessities.
? Commitment is to be committed to the
improvement of people, to nourish individual,
occupational and mental development of others.
? Community building is to focus on the essential
need for local communities in the life of people.
Regrettably, these properties listed by Spears were never
developed more to create a model differentiating among
intrapersonal and interpersonal aspects and outcomes of
servant leadership
The existing literature on the issue servant leadership
was evaluated by Russell & Stone (2002) and this
leadership was divided into two extensive categories as
functional and accompany properties.
Owning a potent vision, being sincere and reliable,
focusing on services, being a god role model,
appreciating the services provided by others and
encouragement are the contents of the functional
attributes.
As for accompany attributes, we can define servant
leaders as competent communicators and as reliable,
capable, empowering instructors and delegators.
Patterson’s (2003) model encircling seven dimensions
is another popular example. In her opinion, servant
leadership is related to virtues. Virtue means character
elements embodying perfection. Theory of virtue dates
back to the Greek Philosopher Aristotle. It is performing
the right actions at the right time. The power of this
model lies within the concept of the need to perform
services; on the other hand, the leader aspect is
disregarded in this model.
Generally, the limited number of empirical research
made on servant leadership demonstrated that job
satisfaction, innate job satisfaction, minding the others’
safety and organizational commitment and follower
satisfaction and servant leadership have a positive

2. relationship. The relationship between the employee’s
way of perceiving servant leadership and organizational
trust was examined by Joseph & Winston (2005) and it
was determined that the relationship between the trust in
the leader and the organization was positive. The
relationship between the servant leadership and virtues of
the leader such as empathy, capacity, integrity and
sociability and the results determined that how the
“followers” rate the servant leadership and how the
followers rate the virtues of the leader such as empathy,
integrity, capacity and sociability were positively related.
B. Who is Servant Leader in my mind?
First, servant leader should be human. He/she should
embrace his/her employees with the maternal affection,
be master in his/her work, distribute works fairly, be
creative, should love his/her work, appreciate the
opinions of employees, shouldn’t build a wall between
him/her and the employees, support employees in their
difficult days and share their happiness in their happy
days. He/she shouldn’t abandon discipline in the
execution of works, should always honor good practices,
in financial terms, he/she should always give the
employees what they deserve. He/she should have the
ability to keep the motivations of the projects high,
he/she shouldn’t work to save the day but to build the
future. He/she should understand everybody and act with
the passion of crating not with the passion of managing.
III.ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Common presumptions, virtues, faith constitute the
system of organizational culture, which manages the
behavioral patterns of individuals within the
organizations. Abovementioned common virtues have a
considerable effect on the individuals in the organization
and they determined the way individuals dress, behave
and execute their duties.
A. Theories according to organization culture
? Structure model (Schein,1985)
Schein’s definition regarding organization
culture:
‘A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the
group learned as it solved its problems of
external adaptation and internal integration, that
has worked well enough to be considered valid
and, therefore, to be taught to new members as
the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in
relation to those problems.’
According to Schein, the culture should be
evaluated according to the common virtues of the
individuals within the group, and these are
historically established structures. These are
buried in the unconscious area of the individuals
within the organization and present direction and
meaning for the relations of people with nature,
reality and social relationships, meanwhile, the
artifacts can be defined as material
representations of virtues and essential
presumptions. Schein advocates that the best way
to consider the organizational culture structure is
to evaluate it in several layers, which are
demonstrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Structural culture model demonstrating
different culture levels [3]
? Dimensionalizing Cultures: Hofstede’s model
(2010)
1. Power Distance is related to various solutions
for the essential human inequality problem;
2. Uncertainty Avoidance is related to stress
degree in a society due to an unknown future;
3. Individualism versus Collectivism is related to
the bringing individuals together to comprise
primary groups;
4. Masculinity versus Femininity is related to the
distribution of emotional roles between male and
female,
5. Long Term versus Short Term Orientation is
related to the focus selection for the efforts of
people: the future, the present and past.
6. Indulgence versus Restraint is related to the
gratification versus management/monitoring of
essential human wishes for enjoying living.
? Denison’s Model (Denison,2011)
Figure 2: Visual representation of Denison’s model
Organizational culture model of Dension focuses on four
key properties to be mastered by an organization in order
to become yielding. “Beliefs and Assumptions” of the
organization are the central point of this model. These are
the aspects of the identity of an organization which are
often held deeply and difficult to access. Mission,
Adaptability, Involvement and Consistency, which are
four characters of the Dension Model, measure the
behaviours, which common beliefs and presumptions
creating the culture of an organization direct. These
characters are demonstrated by separating colors and they
are determined in order to assist you to find answers for
important questions regarding your organization.
A.

3. It was shown by Dension’s research that, efficient
organizations rank high in these four
characteristics. So, the culture of efficient
organizations are probably adaptive, however
highly persistent and foreseeable and these
characteristics are within the frame of a common
sense of duty. The mentioned vigorous model is
split in two main hemispheres: Internal/External
and Flexible/Stable.
1. External Focus (Adjustability +
Mission): An organization, which has a
powerful external focus complies with
adaptation and change in accordance
with the surroundings. It constantly
keeps an eye on the market and
anticipates its direction. A powerful
external focus usually affects earnings,
growth of sale and share in the market.
2. Internal Focus (Involvement +
Persistence): An organization, which has
a powerful internal focus, complies with
the mechanism of integral system,
structure and process integration. It
appreciates its human elements and
honours itself regarding the product and
service quality. Powerful internal focus
is related to better quality and
satisfaction of the employees.
3. Flexibility (Adjustability +
Involvement): An organization, which is
flexible, is capable of changing in
accordance with the environment. It
focuses on the people and the
customers. An organization with
flexibility is usually related to better
product levels and innovation in
services, creativity and responding the
shifting requirements of consumers and
workers fast.
4. Stability (Mission + Persistency): An
organization, which is stable, is able to
keep its focus and stability in time. An
organization with stability is usually
related to high earnings of equities,
investments and growth in sale.
IV.DECISION MAKING
We can formally define organizational decision
making as the process in which the problems are
identified and solved. There are two major stages in this
process. In the stage of problem identification, data
regarding environmental and organizational conditions
are evaluated, it is determined whether the performance is
effective and the disadvantages of the problems are
defined. The problem solving stage is that in which
alternative action patterns are planned and one alternative
is chosen and executed.
A. Intivitual Decision Making
We can define individual decision making of
managers in two patterns. First of them is the
rational approach. Rational approach proposes
an optimal way in which managers may try to
make decisions. Second one is called the
bounded rationality perspective. This second
way defines the way in which decisions should
be made in the face of serious restrictions of
time and resource. Rational approach is a goal
managers try to reach but they never manage.
? Rational Approach
In individual decision making, rational approach
focuses on the necessity of systematic problem
analysis, selection and execution in a
reasonable, step by step pattern. This approach
was developed in order to direct individual
decision making as most of the managers are
known not to be systematic and arbitrary in
organizational decision approach.
Figure 3: Rational Approach
? Bounded Rationality Perspective
As core of the rational approach, managers
should try to utilize systematic processes in
order to make healthy decisions. While
engaging in well understood subjects, managers
usually use rational procedures for decision
making. However, research on decision making
in management demonstrates that managers
cannot always execute an ideal procedure. Most
of the decisions are made in a very short time.
Pressure of time, many internal and external
intervening elements for a decision and the
nature of many problems which are not well-
understood hinders a systematic analysis.
Managers, who don’t have time and mental
energy to assess each target, problem and choice
remain incapable. The attempt to be rational is
bounded (limited) by the enormous complexity
of many problems. There is a limit to how
rational managers can be.
B. Organizational Decision Making
Organizations consist of managers making decisions
utilizing intuitive and rational processes; however
decisions at the organizational level usually cannot be
made by only one manager. Most of organizational
decisions require more than one manager.
Identification and solution of problems require many
departments, various opinions, and other

4. organizations, these are beyond the scope of a single
manager.
? Management Science Approach
In organizational decision making, the approach
of management science is the analog to
individual managers’ rational approach. Science
of management emerged during World War II.
Then, mathematical and statistical methods were
executed for urgent, extensive military issues
beyond the reach of individual decision makers.
Mathematicians, physicists, and operations
researchers used systems analysis to develop
artillery trajectories, antisubmarine strategies,
and bombing strategies such as salvoing
(discharging multiple shells simultaneously).
Consider the problem of a battleship trying to
sink an enemy ship several miles away. The
calculation for aiming the battleship’s guns
should consider distance, wind speed, shell size,
speed and direction of both ships, pitch and roll
of the firing ship, and curvature of the earth.
Methods for performing such calculations using
trial and error and intuition are not accurate, take
far too long, and may never achieve success.
? Carnegie Model
The process of coalition formation has several
implications for organizational decision
behavior. First, decisions are made to satisfice
rather than to optimize problem solutions.
Satisficing means organizations accept a
satisfactory rather than a maximum level of
performance, enabling them to achieve several
goals simultaneously. In decision making, the
coalition will accept a solution that is perceived
as satisfactory to all coalition members. Second,
managers are concerned with immediate
problems and short-run solutions. They engage
in what Cyert and March called problemistic
search.
Problemistic search means managers look
around in the immediate environment for a
solution to quickly resolve a problem. Managers
don’t expect a perfect solution when the
situation is ill-defined and conflict-laden. This
contrasts with the management science
approach, which assumes that analysis can
uncover every reasonable alternative. The
Carnegie model says that search behavior is just
sufficient to produce a satisfactory solution and
that managers typically adopt the first
satisfactory solution that emerges. Third,
discussion and bargaining are especially
important in the problem identification stage of
decision making. Unless coalition members
perceive a problem, action will not be taken.
? Incremental Decision Model
Henry Mintzberg and his associates at McGill
University in Montreal approached
organizational decision making from a different
perspective. They identified twenty-five
decisions made in organizations and traced the
events associated with these decisions from
beginning to end. Their research identified each
step in the decision sequence. This approach to
decision making, called the incremental decision
model, places less emphasis on the political and
social factors described in the Carnegie model,
but tells more about the structured sequence of
activities undertaken from the discovery of a
problem to its solution.
The pattern of decision stages discovered by
Mintzberg and his associates is shown in Figure
4. Each box indicates a possible step in the
decision sequence. The steps take place in three
major decision phases: identification,
development, and selection.
Figure 4: Decision Phases
- Identification Phase: The identification phase
begins with recognition. Recognition means one
or more managers become aware of a problem
and the need to make a decision. Recognition is
usually stimulated by a problem or an
opportunity.
- Development Phase: In the development phase,
a solution is shaped to solve the problem defined
in the identification phase. The development of a
solution takes one of two directions. First,
search procedures may be used to seek out
alternatives within the organization’s repertoire
of solutions.
- Selection Phase. The selection phase is when the
solution is chosen. This phase is not always a
matter of making a clear choice among
alternatives. In the case of custom-made
solutions, selection is more an evaluation of the
single alternative that seems feasible.
? Garbage Can Model
The garbage can model is one of the most recent
and interesting descriptions of organizational
decision processes. It is not directly comparable
to the earlier models, because the garbage can
model deals with the pattern or flow of multiple
decisions within organizations, whereas the
incremental and Carnegie models focus on how
a single decision is made. The garbage can
model helps you think of the whole organization
and the frequent decisions being made by

5. managers throughout.
? Cognitive Biases
While encouraging risk-taking and accepting
mistakes can lead to learning, one error smart
managers strive to avoid is allowing cognitive
biases to cloud their decision making. Cognitive
biases are severe errors in judgment that all
humans are prone to and that typically lead to
bad choices. Three common biases are
escalating commitment, loss aversion, and
groupthink.
V. TIME MANAGEMENT
A. Definition
Time management can be defined as the course of actions
or processes in which conscious control planning and
exercising are executed on the amount of time which is
spent on specific activities particularly for the purpose of
increasing efficiency, effectiveness and productivity.
B. Keys to the efficient use of Time
? Planning: Decide what to do, establishing long-
term goals, and middle-short term goals.
- Important and urgent tasks: The
quadrant of challenging. We cannot
stop to address these tasks. Priorities
fixed by the environment. If you often
are here, you won’t have time to
change or improve. Stress and
exhaustion.
- Important and not urgent tasks:
Opportunity for planning. Keep critical
thinking considering the macro. No
external impositions.
- Not Important and urgent tasks: The
trap. Sexy because contains nice and
easy tasks, but covering others’ needs.
We tend to stay here more than
adequate. We’ re more focused on fight
fires (urgent) cause we think important
can wait.
- Not Important and not urgent tasks:
Waste of time. Just for trying to reduce
stress.
Pay attention to the urgent: More time in
the important, not urgent quadrant.
? Scheduling: Decide when to do that and allocate
resources needed to reach goals.
- Schedule and do the most important
task first (i.e. early in the morning)
- Split long tasks to avoid the feeling you
never have time to do them.
- Establish priorities.
- Gather together related matters if
possible. Higher concentration
- Be flexible enough to deal with
unexpected matters. A norm is plan and
schedule 80% of the workday.
- Your schedule should be written.
- Look at your goals, priorities and tasks
repeatedly.
? Assertiveness: Be able to say directly what you
wish, need or believe without hurting others.
? Delegation: To delegate is to entrust others to
achieve consistent missions targeted.
When delegating, we should avoid fears that can
emerge, created by previous negative
experiences or our own insecurity (things can be
wrong, we can waste too much time, or even
they can be better than us doing it).
VI.CHANGE MANAGEMENT
A. Definition
‘Change management is the process of managing
transformational changes, which affect the culture,
structure and performance of an organization.’
? Scale of charge (Dunphy and Stace -1993):
In term of the different scale of changes, the
model identifies four major kinds: fine tuning,
incremental adjustment, modular
transformation and corporate transformation.
Fine tuning refers to the process of making
small modifications to improve or optimize the
outcome; incremental change as when individual
parts of an organization deal increasingly and
separately with one problem and one objective
at a time; modular transformation refers to major
organizational changes to the components of an
organization rather than the whole firm and
corporate transformation refers to strategic
whole-of-organization change. Such change may
include major changes in organizational
structure, systems, and processes and reformed
organizational mission.
? Scope of charge (Hugues - 2006): Where a
request is considered to change the agreed scope
and objectives of the project to accommodate a
need not originally defined to be part of the
project. In other words, the scope of any change
has a significant impact on the approach that is
needed. A small change can be done on the fly,
whilst changing everything is not so easy.
? Agents of Change:
For change to be successful, implementation
efforts need to fit the organizational context.
There is no simple 'off the shelf' approach that
will work for all organizations.

6. Figure 5: the change kaleidoscope
Julia Balogun and Veronica Hope Hailey
developed the change kaleidoscope in order to
assist managers in designing “a context
sensitive” change approach.
B. Change Management models
? Lewin’s change model : Unfreeze, Change,
Freeze
A lot has changed since the theory was
originally presented in 1947, but the Kurt Lewin
model is still extremely relevant. Many other
more modern change models are actually based
on the Kurt Lewin model. I'm going to head
down a middle road and give you just enough
information to make you dangerous...and
perhaps a little more to whet your appetite!
This three stage theory of change is commonly
referred to as Unfreeze, Change, Freeze (or
Refreeze).
- Unfreeze : This stage is about getting
ready to change. It involves getting to a
point of understanding that change is
necessary, and getting ready to move
away from our current comfort zone.
This first stage is about preparing
ourselves, or others, before the change
- Change / Translation :
Transition(Charge) is the inner
movement or journey we make in
reaction to a change. This second stage
occurs as we make the changes that are
needed. People are 'unfrozen' and
moving towards a new way of being.
- Refreeze : Kurt Lewin refers to this
stage as freezing although a lot of
people refer to it as 'refreezing'. As the
name suggests this stage is about
establishing stability once the changes
have been made. The changes are
accepted and become the new norm.
People form new relationships and
become comfortable with their
routines. This can take time.
? Kotter’s “eight steps of change model”:
Creating change is a challenge at any level
either for individuals, organizations or for a
whole community. Kotter states that "70% of all
major change efforts in organizations fail". For
change to be effective a range of factors need to
be addressed by the organization’s leaders.
These include: vision, cultures, systems,
resources, communication, relationships,
sustainability and more.
- Step 1: Create a Sense of Urgency
Craft and use a significant opportunity
as a means for exciting people to sign
up to change their organization.
- Step 2 : Build a Guiding Coalition
Assemble a group with the power and
energy to lead and support a
collaborative change effort.
- Step 3: Form a Strategic Vision and
Unit.
Shape a vision to help steer the change
effort and develop strategic initiatives
to achieve that vision.
- Step 4 : Enlist a Volunteer Army
Raise a large force of people who are
ready, willing and urgent to drive
change.
- Step 5 :Enable Action by Removing
Barriers
Remove obstacles to change, change
systems or structures that pose threats
to the achievement of the vision.
- Step 6 : Generate Short-Term Wins
Consistently produce, track, evaluate
and celebrate volumes of small and
large accomplishments and correlate
them to results.
- Step 7 : Sustain Acceleration
Use increasing credibility to change
systems, structures and policies that
don’t align with the vision; hire,
promote and develop employees who
can implement the vision; reinvigorate
the process with new projects, themes
and volunteers.
- Step 8 :Institute Change
Articulate the connections between the
new behaviors and organizational
success, and develop the means to
ensure leadership development and
succession.
? ADKAR model
The ADKAR Model reflects the necessary
building blocks for individual change and was
developed based on analysis of research data
from over 900 organizations over a 10-year
period. The abbreviation stands for:
- A - Awareness of the need for change

7. - D - Desire to support and participate in
the change
- K - Knowledge of how to change
- A - Ability to implement the change
- R - Reinforcement to sustain the
change
VII. WORK MOTIVATION
- Victor Vroom’s The Expectancy Theory (ET)
copes with motivation and management. Theory
of Vroom presumes that behavior is the outcome
of conscious selections of alternatives with the
purpose of maximizing pleasure and
minimizing suffering. With Edward Lawler and
Lyman Porter, Vroom proposed that the
relationship between the behaviour of people at
work and their targets wasn’t as simple as it was
imagined by other scientists earlier. Vroom
realized that an employee's performance is based
on individuals factors such as personality, skills,
knowledge, experience and abilities.
Vroom bases his theory on three beliefs listed
below:
? Valence (Valence is the emotional tendencies of
individuals against outcomes (rewards). The
degree of desire of an employee for material
(earning, promotion, holiday, profits) or internal
(satisfaction) rewards). Management is
responsible for finding the values hold by
employees.
? Expectancy (Employees have various
expectations and confidence levels regarding
their capacities). Management must discover
what resources, training, or supervision
employees need.
? Instrumentality (Whether the employees have a
perception to be delivered what they desire even
when they have been promised by their
manager). Managers should secure that given
reward promises should be realized and
employees should be aware of this.
- Self-efficacy theory : Self-efficacy is the extent
or strength of one's belief in one's own ability to
complete tasks and reach goals. Psychologists
have studied self-efficacy from several
perspectives, noting various paths in the
development of self-efficacy; the dynamics of
self-efficacy, and lack thereof, in many different
settings; interactions between self-efficacy and
self-concept; and habits of attribution that
contribute to, or detract from, self-efficacy.
VIII. STRESS
A. Vitamin Model (Warr, 1994)
Environmental and psychological properties such as
specific properties of occupations, affect the mental
health as much as vitamins affect the physical health.
A& D vitamins:
–too much and too little of these are bad
– Control
– Skill level
– External demands
– Variety
– Clarity
– Interpersonal contact
C & E vitamins:
– too little of these are bad
– Money
– Valued social position
– Physical security
B. Neuro-science of stress
Figure 5: Stress in Neuro-science
C. Stress Management strategies :
- Improve time management skills, set your goals,
plan an agenda and balance schedule. Delegate
and be assertive.
- Break bad habits (procrastination, action-
oriented). Positive attitude.
- Identify things that are working well, celebrate
successes, and laugh.
- Take care of yourself- eat healthy, keep fit and
sleep enough.
- Simply sharing your thoughts and feelings with
someone you trust.

8. IX.TEAMWORK
A. Tuckman’s Stages
Tuckman's stages of group development is a model of
group development made by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. It
has four phases: Forming, Storming, Norming and
Performing.
o Forming is when the
members of a team just got
together.
o Storming is when they are
in conflict and are not
agreeing with each other.
o Norming is when they have
finished deciding what is
"normal".
o Performing is when they
are working together
efficiently.
Tuckman believed that these stages are all necessary
and always happen in order for a team:
o to grow
o to face challenges
o to tackle problems
o to find solutions
o to plan work
o to deliver results
B. What Are the Characteristics of Good Teamwork
Habits?
? Communication
Open communication is one of the most important
properties of a good team. All members of the team
should communicate with the other members for
project updates, questions, ideas and general input.
Teams encouraging open communication make it
possible for everybody to share their ideas and
opinions without hesitating.
? Respect
For a team to be a comfortable and safe place for all
members, each person must respect everyone else.
Members should respect every aspect of other
members, though they may not agree with it: ideas,
communication abilities, background, religion, work
style and cultural traditions. Because a great team
requires open communication, respect can create the
trust that will allow members to be vulnerable.
? Collaboration
Teamwork requires effective collaboration; each
person must figure out how her skills and talents fit
with those of the other team members. For a team to
work, everyone must understand what their role is
and how to use it to contribute to the team's success.
Depending on the team, the roles might be as simple
as providing support and morale; a well-functioning
team uses each person's complementary skill sets.
Each member of the team should understand that
everyone's part in the project is equally valid.
? Problem Solving
An effective team must develop its own strategy of
problem solving and conflict management. The
strategy will differ from team to team based on the
situation and the individual members; the individual
team must work out the problem-solving methods
that work best for it. When your team members can
work through roadblocks together, the team will be
able to work smoothly even during rough times.
? Common Goal
A shared mission can help a group of people work
together and create enthusiasm. When everyone is
using their own abilities to work toward a common
goal, the result is greater than the efforts of a single
person. In a strong team, the good of the common
goal comes before the individual preferences and
interests of the members. The goal also contributes to
a smooth operation; the team can resolve problems
and disagreements by determining what is best for
the team and the end goal.
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