The theory of marginal analysis states that whenever marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost, a manager should increase activity to reach the highest net benefit. ... Sunk costs, fixed costs, and average costs do not affect marginal analysis. They are irrelevant to future optimal decision-making
Lecture slides for an undergraduate course on Basic Macroeconomics that I taught in the Fall of 2007.
This lecture goes over the difference between real and nominal GDP.
INTRODUCTION
A breakeven analysis is used to determine how much sales volume your business needs to start making a profit.
The breakeven analysis is especially useful when you're developing a pricing strategy, either as part of a marketing plan or a business plan.
In economics & business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even".
Total cost = Total revenue = B.E.P.
The theory of marginal analysis states that whenever marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost, a manager should increase activity to reach the highest net benefit. ... Sunk costs, fixed costs, and average costs do not affect marginal analysis. They are irrelevant to future optimal decision-making
Lecture slides for an undergraduate course on Basic Macroeconomics that I taught in the Fall of 2007.
This lecture goes over the difference between real and nominal GDP.
INTRODUCTION
A breakeven analysis is used to determine how much sales volume your business needs to start making a profit.
The breakeven analysis is especially useful when you're developing a pricing strategy, either as part of a marketing plan or a business plan.
In economics & business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even".
Total cost = Total revenue = B.E.P.
Cost means the amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on, or attributable to, a given thing.
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountant, England (ICMA) has defined Cost Accounting as – “the process of accounting for the costs from the point at which expenditure incurred, to the establishment of its ultimate relationship with cost centers and cost units.
In its widest sense, it embraces the preparation of statistical data, the application of cost control methods and the ascertainment of the profitability of activities carried out or planned”.
Marginal Product of Labour (MPL), Marginal rate of technical substitution (MR...Roddy Sunguro
The marginal product of labor in the production of computer chips is 50 chips per hour. The marginal rate of technical substitution of hours of labor for hours of machine-capital is 1/4.
What is the marginal product of capital?
Cost means the amount of expenditure (actual or notional) incurred on, or attributable to, a given thing.
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountant, England (ICMA) has defined Cost Accounting as – “the process of accounting for the costs from the point at which expenditure incurred, to the establishment of its ultimate relationship with cost centers and cost units.
In its widest sense, it embraces the preparation of statistical data, the application of cost control methods and the ascertainment of the profitability of activities carried out or planned”.
Marginal Product of Labour (MPL), Marginal rate of technical substitution (MR...Roddy Sunguro
The marginal product of labor in the production of computer chips is 50 chips per hour. The marginal rate of technical substitution of hours of labor for hours of machine-capital is 1/4.
What is the marginal product of capital?
Mathematics (from Greek μάθημα máthēma, “knowledge, study, learning”) is the study of topics such as quantity (numbers), structure, space, and change. There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the exact scope and definition of mathematics
The main objectives of this presentation are to study about Production theory, to study about Production efficiency, to study about cost theory, To relate the cost with production, to study to achieve maximum profit for the organization and to study to take decision which will result maximum benefit for the organization. This report shows what a can a good manager do maximize production efficiency as well as economic efficiency. Not only this one of the most important matter that should be kept in consideration is that, the duration for continuing the production for a product in a competitive market situation. The main objective of an organization is to maximize it profit. Some simultaneous process are related to run an organization and to achieve its goal such as production, creating the demand of the product, selling the product with a profitable cost. That is why a manager should know about the total cost for the production and for the operation. Total cost per product can be reduced by increasing production efficiency. An organization should take this decision how will the increase their production efficiency and at the same time they have to decide how will they use their resources to get maximum output.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
1. Slide 1
Applications of Cost Theory
Chapter 9
• Estimation of Cost Functions using regressions
» Short run -- various methods including polynomial
functions
» Long run -- various methods including
• Engineering cost techniques
• Survivor techniques
• Break-even analysis and operating leverage
• Risk assessment
• Appendix 9A: The Learning Curve
2. Slide 2
Estimating Costs in the SR
• Typically use TIME SERIES data for a plant or
firm.
• Typically use a functional form that “fits” the
presumed shape.
• For TC, often CUBIC
• For AC, often QUADRATIC
quadratic is U-shaped or arch shaped.
cubic is S-shaped
or backward S-shaped
3. Estimating Short Run Cost Functions
• Example: TIME
SERIES data of total
cost
• Quadratic Total Cost
(to the power of two)
TC = C0 + C1Q + C2Q2
TC Q Q 2
900 20 400
800 15 225
834 19 361
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
REGR c1 1 c2 c3
Time
Series
Data
Predictor Coeff Std Err T-value
Constant 1000 300 3.3
Q -50 20 -2.5
Q-squared 10 2.5 4.0
R-square = .91
Adj R-square = .90
N = 35
Regression Output:
→
4. Slide 4
PROBLEMS: 1. Write the cost regression as
an equation. 2. Find the AC and MC
functions.
1. TC = 1000 - 50 Q + 10 Q 2
(3.3) (-2.5) (4)
2. AC = 1000/Q - 50 + 10 Q
MC = - 50 + 20 Q
t-values in the
parentheses
NOTE: We can estimate TC either as quadratic or as CUBIC:
TC = C1 Q + C2 Q2
+ C3 Q3
If TC is CUBIC, then AC will be quadratic:
AC = C1 + C2 Q + C3 Q2
5. Slide 5
What Went Wrong With Boeing?
• Airbus and Boeing both produce large capacity
passenger jets
• Boeing built each 747 to order, one at a time, rather
than using a common platform
» Airbus began to take away Boeing’s market share through
its lower costs.
• As Boeing shifted to mass production techniques,
cost fell, but the price was still below its marginal
cost for wide-body planes
6. Slide 6
Estimating LR Cost Relationships
• Use a CROSS
SECTION of firms
» SR costs usually
uses a time series
• Assume that firms
are near their
lowest average cost
for each output
Q
AC
LRAC
7. Slide 7
Log Linear LR Cost Curves
• One functional form is Log Linear
• Log TC = a + b• Log Q + c•Log W + d•Log R
• Coefficients are elasticities.
• “b” is the output elasticity of TC
» IF b = 1, then CRS long run cost function
» IF b < 1, then IRS long run cost function
» IF b > 1, then DRS long run cost function
Example: Electrical
Utilities
Sample of 20 Utilities
Q = megawatt hours
R = cost of capital on rate
base, W = wage rate
8. Slide 8
Electrical Utility ExampleElectrical Utility Example
• Regression Results:
Log TC = -.4 +.83 Log Q + 1.05 Log(W/R)
(1.04) (.03) (.21)
R-square = .9745
Std-errors are in
the parentheses
9. Slide 9
QUESTIONS:
1. Are utilities constant
returns to scale?
2. Are coefficients statistically
significant?
3. Test the hypothesis:
Ho: b = 1.
10. Slide 10
A n s w e r s
1.The coefficient on Log Q is less than
one. A 1% increase in output lead
only to a .83% increase in TC -- It’s
Increasing Returns to Scale!
2.The t-values are coeff / std-errors: t
= .83/.03 = 27.7 is Sign. & t = 1.05/.21
= 5.0 which is Significant.
3.The t-value is (.83 - 1)/.03 =
- 0.17/.03 = - 5.6 which is significantly
different than CRS.
11. Slide 11
Cement Mix
Processing Plants
• 13 cement mix processing plants provided
data for the following cost function. Test
the hypothesis that cement mixing plants
have constant returns to scale?
• Ln TC = .03 + .35 Ln W + .65 Ln R + 1.21 Ln Q
(.01) (.24) (.33) (.08)
R2
= .563
• parentheses contain standard errors
12. Slide 12
Discussion
• Cement plants are Constant Returns if the
coefficient on Ln Q were 1
• 1.21 is more than 1, which appears to be
Decreasing Returns to Scale.
• TEST: t = (1.21 -1 ) /.08 = 2.65
• Small Sample, d.f. = 13 - 3 -1 = 9
• critical t = 2.262
• We reject constant returns to scale.
13. Slide 13
Engineering Cost Approach
• Engineering Cost Techniques offer an alternative to fitting
lines through historical data points using regression
analysis.
• It uses knowledge about the efficiency of machinery.
• Some processes have pronounced economies of
scale, whereas other processes (including the costs
of raw materials) do not have economies of scale.
• Size and volume are mathematically related, leading to
engineering relationships. Large warehouses tend to be
cheaper than small ones per cubic foot of space.
14. Slide 14
Survivor Technique
• The Survivor Technique examines what size of
firms are tending to succeed over time, and
what sizes are declining.
• This is a sort of Darwinian survival test for firm
size.
• Presently many banks are merging, leading one
to conclude that small size offers disadvantages
at this time.
• Dry cleaners are not particularly growing in
average size, however.
15. Slide 15
Break-even Analysis & D.O.LBreak-even Analysis & D.O.L
• Can have multiple B/E
points
• If linear total cost and total
revenue:
» TR = P•Q
» TC = F + v•Q
• where v is Average
Variable Cost
• F is Fixed Cost
• Q is Output
• cost-volume-profit analysis
Total
Cost
Total
Revenue
B/E B/E
Q
16. Slide 16
The Break-even Quantity: Q B/E
• At break-even: TR = TC
» So, P•Q = F + v•Q
• Q B/E= F / ( P - v) = F/CM
» where contribution margin is:
CM = ( P - v)
TR
TC
B/E Q
PROBLEM: As a garage
contractor, find Q B/E
if: P = $9,000 per garage
v = $7,000 per garage
& F = $40,000 per year
17. Slide 17
• Amount of sales
revenues that breaks
even
• P•QB/E = P•[F/(P-v)]
= F / [ 1 - v/P ]
Break-even Sales Volume
Variable Cost Ratio
Ex: At Q = 20,
B/E Sales Volume is
$9,000•20 =
$180,000 Sales Volume
Answer: Q = 40,000/(2,000)= 40/2 = 20
garages at the break-even point.
18. Slide 18
Target Profit Output
Quantity needed to attain a target
profit
If π is the target profit,
Q target π = [ F + π] / (P-v)
Suppose want to attain $50,000 profit, then,
Q target π = ($40,000 + $50,000)/$2,000
= $90,000/$2,000 = 45 garages
19. Slide 19
Degree of Operating Leverage
or Operating Profit Elasticity
• DOL = Eπ
» sensitivity of operating profit (EBIT) to
changes in output
• Operating π = TR-TC = (P-v)•Q - F
• Hence, DOL = ∂ π/∂ Q•(Q/π) =
(P-v)•(Q/π) = (P-v)•Q / [(P-v)•Q - F]
A measure of the importance of Fixed Cost
or Business Risk to fluctuations in output
20. Slide 20
Suppose a contractor builds 45 garages.
What is the D.O.L?
• DOL = (9000-7000) • 45 .
{(9000-7000)•45 - 40000}
= 90,000 / 50,000 = 1.8
• A 1% INCREASE in Q → 1.8% INCREASE
in operating profit.
• At the break-even point, DOL is INFINITE.
» A small change in Q increase EBIT by
astronomically large percentage rates
21. Slide 21
DOL as
Operating Profit Elasticity
DOL = [ (P - v)Q ] / { [ (P - v)Q ] - F }
• We can use empirical estimation methods to find
operating leverage
• Elasticities can be estimated with double log
functional forms
• Use a time series of data on operating profit and
output
» Ln EBIT = a + b• Ln Q, where b is the DOL
» then a 1% increase in output increases EBIT by b%
» b tends to be greater than or equal to 1
22. Slide 22
Regression Output
• Dependent Variable: Ln EBIT uses 20
quarterly observations N = 20
The log-linear regression equation is
Ln EBIT = - .75 + 1.23 Ln Q
Predictor Coeff Stdev t-ratio p
Constant -.7521 0.04805 -15.650 0.001
Ln Q 1.2341 0.1345 9.175 0.001
s = 0.0876 R-square= 98.2% R-sq(adj) = 98.0%
The DOL for this firm, 1.23. So, a 1% increase in
output leads to a 1.23% increase in operating profit
23. Slide 23
Operating Profit and the Business Cycle
Output
recession
TIME
EBIT =
operating
profit
Trough
peak
1. EBIT is more volatile
that output over cycle
2. EBIT tends to
collapse late in
recessions
24. Slide 24
Learning Curve: Appendix 9A
• “Learning by doing” has wide application in
production processes.
• Workers and management become more efficient with
experience.
• the cost of production declines as the
accumulated past production, Q = Σqt,
increases, where qt is the amount produced in
the tth
period.
• Airline manufacturing, ship building, and appliance
manufacturing have demonstrated the learning curve
effect.
25. Slide 25
• Functionally, the learning curve relationship can
be written C = a·Qb
, where C is the input cost of
the Qth unit:
• Taking the (natural) logarithm of both sides, we
get: log C = log a + b·log Q
• The coefficient b tells us the extent of the
learning curve effect.
» If the b=0, then costs are at a constant level.
» If b > 0, then costs rise in output, which is exactly
opposite of the learning curve effect.
» If b < 0, then costs decline in output, as predicted by
the learning curve effect.