Mammalogy power point 2021-1.pptx

•Gambella University
Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart Agriculture)
4/29/2023

1: Introduction to Mammalogy
What does mean by Mammalogy:?
Ӑ. The word mammals derived from Latin, it means breast or teat.
Ӑ . The mammals are the highest group in the animal kingdom.
Ӑ . Young Mammals fed on milk from mammary glands, had modified sweat glands.
Ӑ . They are warm blooded, back boned animals.
4/29/2023 Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart Agriculture)

: Basic concept of Mammalogy:?
Ӑ Mammalogy is the branch of biology, deals structure, function,
evolutionary history, Ethology, taxonomy and management of mammals.
Ӑ . About 4,200 species of mammal are there, consist of egg-laying
echidnas, platypus, pouched marsupials, tiny shrews, bats, mice, whales
etc, they are hairy, milk producing endothermic animals.
4/29/2023
Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart
Agriculture)

Taxonomic Classification System of Mammalia
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Classification System Mentioned Examples
4/29/2023 Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart Agriculture

1.1. Major Characteristics of mammals
• 1. Hair and Mammary Glands
• They distinguished from others vertebrate, by having hair and
mammary glands.
• Mammary glands: produce and secrete milk that nourishes
developing young.
• Mammals’ hair has several functions,
1. Insulation
2. Camouflage
3. Sensory devices
4. Defense
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Other Characteristics mammals
 A high metabolic rate supports endothermy,
 Specialized teeth and digestive systems,
 A diaphragm to aid in respiration,
 A four-chambered heart, and a highly developed brain
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1. Endothermy:
 Mammals are endotherms, to mean they produce their body heat internally.
• 2. Four-chambered heart,
 With complete separation of pulmonary and systemic circulation.
• 3. An nucleate Red Blood Cells –
 Provides them more space for hemoglobin and greater capacity for
carrying oxygen.
Other Characteristics mammals
Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart Agriculture
4/29/2023

Separate sexes
Muscular Diaphragm - used in respiration.
Facial muscles: allows for facial expression and communication.
Expanded cerebral portion of brain (particular portion called dorsal pallium)
Double occipital condyle (the point of articulation between skull and vertebral column).
Mammals have single lower jaw,
Other Characteristics mammals….
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Other Characteristics mammals…..
Three auditory ossicles (middle ear).
Teeth with different dental characters.
Diphyodont : two generations of teeth contrasts with monophyodont and polyphyodonty.
Thecodont: – Teeth are rooted in a socket,
Heterodont:-different teeth have different shapes and functions, a opposed to homodont
(seen in some reptiles).
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• 1.2. Origin and evolution of mammals…
Mammals evolved from reptilian subclass synapsid ancestors appeared in late
Carboniferous period in Mesozoic era 225 million years ago (age of reptiles) occurred in
Triassic period.
Descendant of synapsid, Therapsida are the first true mammal-like reptiles, happen in 190
million years ago, foothold in the world at beginning of the Cenozoic in Triassic period of
200 million years ago.
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Origin and evolution of mammals….
Were dog-like carnivores with differentiated teeth and legs for running,
small about the size of a mouse or shrew.
• The world was not ready for mammals until the great reptilian dinosaurs
died about 70 million years ago.
• The mammals were present and living throughout the whole Mesozoic Age,
however it expanded during the era of Cenozoic Era when Dinosaurs died
out. Mesozoic Era was era of dinosaurs.
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CONCEPT OF EON, ERA, PERIOD AND EPOCH

• How did the mammals manage to co-exist with the
reptiles?
The earliest mammals lived in trees and were nocturnal, searching for food (mainly
insects and plant material and perhaps reptile eggs) at night while the reptiles were
inactive.
Their life style known by large eye characteristics of the present day nocturnal primates.
By bearing their young alive, avoided they avoided hazards of having their eggs consumed
by predators.
By nourishing the young and caring for them, the parents could offer both protection and
an education.
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When and how did mammals become widely distributed and adapted to a variety
of ecological niches?
As Mammal-like reptiles died out by the end of Triassic, the mammals began to
abandoned territories and ecological niches.
Among them the modern relatives, the duck-billed platypus of Australia and two
species of spiny anteaters or echidans of Australia and New Guinea retain certain
reptilian traits.
These monotreme species lay small leathery eggs, but like all other mammals,
nurse their young with milk after hatching.
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When and how did mammals become widely distributed and
adapted to a variety of ecological niches?
Near the close of the cretaceous the first known Marsupials and placentals appeared.
Marsupials were at first more numerous and placentals relatively rare.
All these later cretaceous forms were small insectivorous types, as judged by the teeth.
Marsupials and placentals come off independently from different types of pantotheres,
The marsupials probably arising somewhat earlier than the placental mammals.
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During the Paleocene, the first period of the Cenozoic age, the placental mammals found
the world wide open for exploitation.
During the Eocene, the second period of the Cenozoic all the main orders of mammals
had been established, apparently as offshoots of the ancestral insectivores.
By the end of the cretaceous period, three main groups of mammals.
Today, these are classified in three subclasses: prototheria, Metatheria, and Eutheria.
When and how did mammals become widely distributed and adapted to a variety of ecological
niches?.....
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When and how did mammals become widely distributed and adapted to a
variety of ecological niches?...
Currently mammals inhabit virtually every corner of the earth-on the
land, in freshwater, salt water, and in air.
They range in size from the tiny pigmy shrew, weighing about 25 grams
to the blue whale, weight more than 90,000kg and is largest animal that
ever lived.
Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
Kedir (Msc In Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Smart
Agriculture
4/29/2023

Why is the Cenozoic era Recognized as “the age of mammals”?
• An amazing diversification among mammals as expanded during the 65 ml
years since the Cenozoic era began,
• Increasing sophisticated temperature regulation: Allows the marsupials
and placental to live in a broader range of habitats than the monotremes.
• Increased body size: Within nearly every mammalian order there is a trend
towards larger size, apparently related to heat balance. The larger the
body, the lower the ratio of surface is to body mass.
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Diversification of tooth shapes: Mammals have evolved a wide variety of tooth shapes
and functions that correlate with food sources.
Wide, flat molars and premolars for grinding grains and grasses or for crushing bones.
Elongation and specialization of limbs: Mammals have developed diversified limb
structures that permit many different locomotory styles and behaviors.
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Feeding Specializations in Mammals: The feeding or trophic apparatus
of a mammalian teeth and alimentary canal are adapted to its particular
feeding habit.
Based on their feeding specializations, mammals may be divided into the
three basic trophic (nutritional groups) like Omnivores, carnivores and
herbivores.
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Chapter two: Classification of Mammals
• Mammalian is a class of animal within the Phylum Chordata.
• Mammal classification: Several iterations since Carolus Linnaeus initially defined the class.
1. Monotremes are reproduce by laying eggs.
The only living monotremes besides the duck-billed platypus are echidnas (spiny anteater) live in Australia,
Tasmania, and New Guinea.
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Taxonomic Classification System Concept
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Classification System of Mammals Mentioned
as Examples

Classification System of Mammals Mentioned as
Examples

2. Marsupials: Pouched mammals that have a very short period of
development in the uterus.
Immediately following birth, the offspring crawl into a pouch made of
skin and hair on the outside of the mother’s body.
Within the pouch, the offspring continue development nourished by milk
from the mother’s mammary glands.
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Classification of Mammals ….
• 3. Placental mammals
• Most mammals, are placental.
• Placental mammals are mammals that have a placenta, the organ that
provides food and oxygen to and removes waste from developing young.
• Placental mammals give birth to young that do not need further
development within a pouch. Placental mammals are represented by 18
orders.
• Placental mammals have greater numbers and kinds.
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Trophic categories of mammals
• Mammologists divide mammals based on the Trophic categories
• 1. Insectivores: Moles and shrews, eat insects and other small invertebrates.
• 2. Herbivores Rabbits and deer, feed on vegetation.
• 3. Carnivores Foxes and lions, mostly feed on herbivores.
• 4. Omnivores Raccoons and most primates, feed on both plants and animals.
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Classification of mammalian orders
• Class Mammalia are subdivided into two sub-classes and 20 orders
• 1. Subclass: Protheria: Cretaceous and early Cenozoic mammals.
I. . Order Monotremata
• Egg laying (oviparous) mammals, duck-billed platypus, spiny anteater. Is from
Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea.
• Family Tachyglossidae: Echidnas, spiny anteaters,
• Family Ornithorhynchidae: Duck-billed platypus,
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• 2. Subclass Theria
I. Marsupialia (Little pouch)
Viviparous pouched mammals e.g. Opossums, Kangaroos, Koalas, Tasmanian Wolves, Womb ants,
Bandicoots and Numbats.
These mammals are characterized by the abdominal pouch, the marsupium.
The young are nourished in the uterus for a short time by way of a yolk-sac placenta.
Only the opossum is found in the Americans, other order is found in Australia.
a) Order Didelphimorphia
• Family Didelphidae: Opossums
• Order Paucituberculata
• Family Phascolarctidae Kaolas
• Order Diprotodontia
• Family Macropodidae, Kangaroo
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3. Subclass EUtheria
b) Order Insectivore
E.g. Insectivores are widely distributed over the world, except Australia and New
Zeeland.
The shrews are among the smallest mammals known. They are the most primitive
placental mammals, shrews, hedgehogs, moles.
C) Order Macroscelidea
Are secretive mammals with long legs, a snout like nose adapted for catching insects,
large eyes, and are widespread in Africa (elephant Shrews).
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c) Order Macroscelidea
• Are secretive mammals with long legs, a snout like nose adapted for catching
insects, large eyes, and are widespread in Africa (elephant Shrews).
• Family Macroscelidea: elephant Shrews
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d) Order Dermoptera: Flying lemurs
• These are related to the true bats and consist of the single genus Galeopithecus.
They are found in the East Indies. They are lemurs (which are like primates and
cannot fly in the strict sense of the word, but glide like flying squirrels).
• Family Cynocephalidae: Colugos
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E) Order Chiroptera: Bats are the only flying Mammals
• The wings are modified forelimbs in which the second to fifth digits
(thumb) are elongated to support a thin integumental membrane for
flying.
• Their wings are thin membranes supported by modified forelimbs.
• Family Emballonuridae: sac-winged bats (southern continents)
• Family Craseonycteridae: Kitti's hog-nosed bat (Thailand)
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F) Order Primates: lemurs, monkeys, apes and humans-(cosmopolitan)
• Monkeys, apes, and humans are all examples of primates.
• Primates’ brains, with large cerebral region, are the most developed
brains of all mammals.
• As a group they are generalized with five digits (usually with flat
nails) on both forelimbs and hind limbs.
• Their bodies is covered with hair.
• The group is singularly lacking in claws, scales, horns and hoofs.
• Family Lorisidae: (9 species), lorises and potto (Africa and Southeast
Asia)
• Family Galagidae: (19 species), galagos (Africa)
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F) Order Primates: lemurs, monkeys, apes and humans-
(cosmopolitan)
• Family Tarsiidae: (9 species), tarsiers (Southeast Asia)
• Family Callitrichidae: (41 species), marmosets and tamarins (South America)
• Family Cebidae: (14 species), New World monkeys (South America)
• Family Cercopithecidae: (137 species), Old World monkeys (Africa and Eurasia)
• Family Hylobatidae: (14 species), gibbons (Southeast Asia)
• Family Hominidae: (7 species), great apes, human (worldwide)
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G. Order Xenarthra (Edentata): anteaters, armadillos, sloth
• Species of this order are either toothless (anteaters) or have simple, peg-like teeth (sloth’s
and armadillos) most live in south and Central America.
• Anteaters have a spiny tongue and sticky saliva used for capture ants and termites in their
nests.
• Sloths mostly feed on leaves, and armadillos feed on insects.
• Most mammals in this order live in Central America and South America,
• Family Dasypodidae: Armadillos
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H. Order Pholidota: Pangolins
• These are a group of mammals whose bodies are covered with overlapping horny
scales that have arisen from fused bundles of hair.
• Their home is in tropical Asia and Africa.
Family Manidae: Pangolins
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I. Order Lagomorphs: rabbits, hares, pikas
• Lagomorphs have long, constantly growing incisors, like rodents,
but unlike rodents, they have an additional pair of peg-like incisors
growing behind the first pair. All lagomorphs are herbivores with
cosmopolitan distribution.
• Family Leporidae: (60 species), rabbits and hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas)
• Family Ochotonidae: (30 species), pikas (Holarctic)
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J) Order Rodentia: gnawing mammals (2,278 species)
• The rodents, comprising nearly 40% of all mammalian species and
characterized by two pairs of razor-sharp incisors used for cutting
things for food.
• With their impressive reproductive powers, adaptability and capacity
to invade all habitats, they are of great ecological significance.
• Family Sciuridae: squirrels, chipmunks, and marmots (cosmopolitan
except Australia)
• Family Gliridae: dormice (Africa, Eurasia)
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• Family Castoridae: beavers (Holarctic)
• Family Geomyidae: pocket gophers (North America)
• Family Calomyscidae: mouse-like hamsters (Asia)
• Family Nesomyidae: old endemic African muroids (Africa,
Madagascar)
• Family Cricetidae: hamsters, voles, and New World rats and mice
(Holarctic, South America)
• Family Muridae: Old World rats and mice and gerbils (Africa,
Eurasia, Australia)
• Family Anomaluridae: scaly-tailed flying squirrels (Africa)
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K) Order Carnivora: 286 species
• Flesh eating mammals: dogs, wolves, cats, bears and Weasels. All carnivora
except the giant panda have predatory habits, and their teeth are especially
adapted for tearing flesh.
• They are distributed all over the world except in Australian and Antarctic
regions where there are no native forms.
• Family Felidae (cats, lions, tigers, cheetahs, Smilodon)
• Family Herpestidae (mongooses, meerkats, suricats, fossas)
• Family Hyaenidae (hyenas, aardwolves)
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M) Superfamily Caniformia (Dog-like):
• Family Canidae (dogs, wolves, foxes, coyotes)
• Family Odobenidae (walruses)
• Family Mustelidae (mustelids: weasels, ferrets, minks, wolverines,
skunks, badgers)
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Superfamily Feliformia (Cat-like):
• Family Felidae (cats, lions, tigers, cheetahs, Smilodon)
• Family Herpestidae (mongooses, meerkats, suricats, fossas)
• Family Hyaenidae (hyenas, aardwolves)
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N. Order Pinnipedia
• Sea lions, Seals and Walruses. The limbs of these aquatic carnivores have been
modified as flippers for swimming.
• Most are salt-water forms; and their food consists mostly of fish.
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O. Order Tubulidentata: Dense teeth - aardvark
The name “aardvark” is Dutch for earth pig, a peculiar animal
with a pig-like body found in Africa.
P. Order Proboscidea: Proboscis mammal elephants (3
species)
These are the largest land animals, have two upper incisors
elongated as tusks, and the molar teeth are well developed.
Family Elephantidae: Elephants
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Q. Order Hyracoidea: hyraxes (coneys)
• Hyraxes are herbivores that are restricted to Africa and Syria. They have some
resemblance to short-eared rabbits but have teeth like rhinoceroses, with hooves on
their toes and pads on their feet. They have four toes on the front feet and three toes
on the back.
• Family Procaviidae: Hyraxes
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R. Order Sirenia: Sea cows and manatees.
• The sirenia are large, clumsy (difficult to handle or use; unwieldy), aquatic
mammals , no hind limbs and forelimbs are modified into flippers (broad, flat limb
without fingers, used for swimming).
• The sea cow of tropical coastlines of East Africa, Asia and Australia and three
species of manatees of the Caribbean area and Florida, Amazon River and West
Africa are the only living species.
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S. Order Perissodactyla:
• Odd-toed hoofed mammals: horses, asses, Zebras, tapirs, rhinoceroses.
The odd-toed hoofed mammals have an odd number of toes, each with
a cornified hoof. All are herbivores.
• Perissodactyls are odd-toed ungulates (hoofed mammals).
• Perissodactyls are herbivores (plant-eaters) who have cheek teeth used
for chewing plant material. (Even-toed ungulates are artiodactyls.)
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19. Order Artiodactyla:
• Even-toed footed mammals, Swine, Camels, Deer and their allies
Hippopotamus, Antelopes, Cattle, Sheep, Goats. Most of these
ungulates have two toes, although the hippopotamus and some
others have four.
• The order is commonly divided into 3 suborders: The Suina (pigs,
hippos), The Tylopoda (Camels) and The Ruminantia (deer, giraffe,
sheep, etc) Both the perissodactyla and Artiodactyla are often
referred to as (ungulates or hoofed mammals
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Chapter Three: Ecology of Mammals
Adaptation of mammals
• An adaptation is a characteristic that enhances the survival or reproduction
of organisms to become better suited to the environment.
Organisms are able to
Get air, water, food and nutrients,
Cope with physical conditions like temperature.
Defend themselves from their natural enemies
Reproduce and respond to changes around them
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Adaptation of mammals….
Habitat: Mammals live in many different habitats on and under the land, in water and in
the air. This exception prevents mammals from living in the very deep oceans.
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Physiological and Morphological Adaptations of Mammals
Integument and its Derivatives:
• The presence of Light-weighted water proof epidermal layer helps in allowing
mammals to successfully colonize a variety of terrestrial habitat.
• The deepest layer of epidermal layer is stratum Basale.
• Large amounts of keratin non-keratinized cells may contain melanin.
• Dermis:-Irregular connections with epidermis via papillae.
• Dermal layer composed mostly of dense connective tissue.
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Integument and its Derivatives:
• The integumentary system consists of skin, hair, nails, and various glands,
• The integument is the largest system of the body 16% of body weight 1.5 to 2 m² in area,
• The integument is made up of two parts,
• Superficial epithelium called epidermis
• Underlying connective tissue called dermis
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Structures of the Epidermis
• Stratum germinativum
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum lucidum
• Stratum corneum
•
The five strata of keratinocytes in thick skin from basal lamina to
free surface,
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• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes DNA mutations leads to cancer and wrinkles,
• Melanin concentrates around nuclear envelope and absorbs UV radiation before it can
damage nuclear DNA.
• Functions of Integument.
• Protection: covers and protects underlying tissues and organs from impacts
• It also prevents loss of body fluids
• Temperature Maintenance: skin maintains normal body temperature by regulating heat
exchange with environment (insulation and evaporation).
Structures of the Epidermis
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• Synthesis and Storage of Nutrients: epidermis makes vitamin D3.
• Dermis stores large reserves of lipids in adipose tissue
• Sensory Reception: receptors detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.
• Excretion and Secretion: integumentary glands excrete salts, water, and organic wastes.
Hair
• Nonliving structure produced in organs called hair follicles.
• Project above skin surface almost everywhere on human body.
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Functions of Hair
Protect from UV light damage
• Prevent entry of foreign particles.
• Melanin produce hair colors that range from black to red
• Hair color lightens as pigment production decreases with age.
• Hair color is described as gray as proportion of white hairs increase.
• Mammals shed or molt hair once or usually twice each year.
• Hair can be specialized into bristles, spines, and whiskers
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Epidermal Glands in mammal
• Mammals have the greatest variety of integumentary glands of any vertebrate.
• 1. Mammary gland: Produce and secrete milk
• 2. Sweat glands:
• Coiled tubular glands that discharge their secretions directly onto skin surface.
• Provides protection from environmental hazards.
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3. Sebaceous Glands
• Sebaceous Glands (oil Glands): It discharge an oily lipid secretion into hair follicles or
onto skin surface,
• Lubricates hair and skin and inhibits bacterial growth,
• 4. Scent gland
• Various functions
• Communication, marking territories, Warning, Defense
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Skeletal system in mammals
• Provides structural support and serve as a point of attachment for skeletal muscles.
• 1. Axial skeleton: Ribs skull, Sternum, Auditory ossicles Axial skeleton supports and protects organs of head,
neck and trunk
• 2. Apendicular: Pelvic girdles and limbs
• Functions of the Skeleton
• 1. Support: provide support for the body.
• Protection: Body to protect them.
• Movement: act as attachment points for the skeletal muscles of the body.
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Functions of the Skeleton
• Storage: Bones have their own nerves and blood vessels.
• Hematopoiesis: Red bone marrow produces red and white
blood cells in a process known as hematopoiesis.
• Respiratory System
• Mammal lungs have a larger surface area than reptiles and
amphibians.
• The Diaphragm aids mammals in breathing:
• It is a sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from
the abdominal cavity. Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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Circulatory System
• Mammals have a four-chambered heart: A septum completely divides the
ventricle.
• The left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood to the body.
• The right ventricle pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
• Only the oxygen-rich blood is delivered to the tissues
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Nutritional adaptation in mammals
• The mammalian digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory glands
• The accessory glands include the salivary glands, the pancreas, the liver, and the
gallbladder.
• Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur in the small intestine.
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• The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate food processing.
• Both physical and chemical digestion of food begins in the mouth.
• During chewing, teeth of various shapes cut, smash, and grind food, making it easier to
swallow and increasing its surface area.
• The presence of food in the oral cavity triggers a nervous reflex that causes the salivary
glands to deliver saliva through ducts to the oral cavity.
• Salivation may occur in because of learned associations between eating and the time of day,
cooking odors, or other stimuli.
Nutritional adaptation in mammals……
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Nutritional adaptation in mammals……
• Saliva contains a slippery glycoprotein called mucin, which protects the soft lining of
the mouth from abrasion and lubricates the food for easier swallowing.
• Saliva also contains buffers that help prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid in the
mouth.
• Antibacterial agents in saliva kill many bacteria that enter the mouth with food.
• Chemical digestion of carbohydrates, a main source of chemical energy, begins in the
oral cavity.
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• Saliva contains salivary amylase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides and the
disaccharide maltose.
• The tongue tastes food, manipulates it during chewing, and helps shape the food into a ball called a bolus.
• During swallowing, the tongue pushes a bolus back into the oral cavity and into the pharynx.
• The pharynx, also called the throat, is a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe).
• The stomach stores food and performs preliminary digestion and it is located in the upper abdominal cavity, just below the
diaphragm.
• The stomach also secretes a digestive fluid called gastric juice and mixes this secretion with the food by the churning action of
the smooth muscles in the stomach wall.
• Pepsin is secreted in an inactive form, called pepsinogen by specialized chief cells in gastric pits (hollow or indentation in a
surface).
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• The small intestine is the major organ of digestion and absorption.
• With a length of over 6 m in humans, the small intestine is the longest section of the
alimentary canal.
• In the duodenum, acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the
pancreas, liver, gall bladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall.
• The pancreas produces several hydrolytic enzymes and an alkaline solution rich in
bicarbonate which buffers the acidity of the chyme from the stomach.
• The liver performs a wide variety of important functions in the body, including the
production of bile. Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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• Bile is stored in the gallbladder until needed.
• It contains bile salts which act as detergents that aid in the digestion and absorption of fats.
• Bile also contains pigments that are by-products of red blood cell destruction in the liver.
• Specific enzymes from the pancreas and the duodenal wall have specific roles in digesting
macromolecules.
• The digestion of starch and glycogen, begun by salivary amylase in mouth.
• Pancreatic amylases hydrolyze starch, glycogen, and smaller polysaccharides into disaccharides.
• A family of disaccharidases hydrolyze each disaccharide into monomers.
• Maltase splits maltose into two glucose molecules.
• Sucrase splits sucrose, into glucose and fructose.
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• These enzymes are built into the membranes and extracellular matrix of the intestinal epithelium
which is also the site of sugar absorption.
• Digestion of proteins in the small intestine completes the process begun by pepsin.
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin attack peptide bonds adjacent to specific amino acids, breaking larger
polypeptides into shorter chains.
• Dipeptidase, attached to the intestinal lining, split smaller chains.
• Carboxypeptidases and aminopeptidase split off one amino acid from the carboxyl or amino
end of a peptide, respectively.
• Another intestinal enzyme, enteropeptidase, converts inactive trypsinogen into active trypsin.
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Structural adaptations of digestive systems are often associated with diet:
• Nearly all the fat in a meal reaches the small intestine undigested.
• Fat molecules are insoluble in water, but bile salts, secreted by the gallbladder into the
duodenum, coat tiny fats droplets and keep them from coalescing, a process known as
emulsification.
• The large surface area of these small droplets is exposed to lipase, an enzyme that
hydrolyzes fat molecules into glycerol fatty acids.
• Most digestion occurs in the duodenum.
• Sections of the small intestine, the jejunum and ileum,
• Function mainly in the absorption of nutrients and water.
• The small intestine has a huge surface area.
• The enormous surface of the small intestine is an adaptation that greatly increases the rate
of nutrient absorption.
• The large intestine, or colon, is connected to the small intestine, controls the movement of
materials.
• Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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Structural adaptations of digestive systems are often associated with diet:
• Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is one example of structural variation
reflecting diet.
• An evolutionary adaptation of teeth for processing different kinds of food is one of the
major reasons that mammals have been so successful.
• Non-mammalian vertebrates generally have less specialized dentition.
• Large, expandable stomachs are common in carnivores.
• The length of the vertebrate digestive system is also correlated with diet.
• Herbivores and omnivores have longer alimentary canals relative to their body sizes
than to carnivores
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Symbiotic microorganisms help nourish many vertebrates
• Much of the chemical energy in the diet of herbivorous animals is contained in the cellulose of
plant cell walls.
• However, animals do not produce enzymes that hydrolyze cellulose.
• Many vertebrates (and termites) solve this problem by housing large populations of symbiotic
bacteria and protists in special fermentation chambers in their alimentary canals.
• These microorganisms do have enzymes that can digest cellulose to simple sugars that the
animal can absorb.
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• Mammals have specialized teeth that reflect the difference in their diets
• Mammalian teeth are continually lost and replaced.
• Mammalians have two sets of teeth.
• Baby Teeth = the first set a+++nd
• Permanent Teeth = the second set (not replaced).
• Types of Teeth: Most mammalians have four types of teeth
• Each type of tooth performs a different function
• Incisors - Biting and cutting (Front teeth)
• Canines - Used for stabbing and holding (behind incisors)
• Premolars – Crushing and grinding (line the jaw)
• Molars- Crushing and grinding (line the jaw)
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• Teeth of carnivores:
• Long canine teeth that are suited for grasping prey.
• Sharp molars and premolars can cut off pieces of flesh.
• Teeth of herbivores: Small incisor- sharped canines.
• Incisors and canines used to nip off pieces of plant material.
• Premolars and molars are flat and covered with ridges to create a surface where
plants can be ground Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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• Teeth of carnivores:
• Long canine teeth that are suited for grasping prey.
• Sharp molars and premolars can cut off pieces of flesh.
• Teeth of herbivores: Small incisor- sharped canines
• Incisors and canines used to nip off pieces of plant material.
• Premolars and molars are flat and covered with ridges to create a surface where plants can be ground
• Reproduction in mammals
• All mammals reproduce by internal fertilization,
• Mammals differ in how and where their fertilized eggs develop,
• Mammals are classified into three groups based on their pattern of development,
• Monotremes
• Marsupials
• Placental Mammals
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• Monotremes are oviparous = reproduce by laying eggs
• Eggs hatch quickly, and the mother stays with and nurses the young for several months.
• There are only two alive today. Duckbill platypus & echidnas
• Ovaries larger (relative to body size) than other mammals; eggs also larger, greater
amount of yolk
• Oviducts open into common urogenital sinus, similar to reptile cloaca
• Milk secreted by glands in skin, licked from tufts of fur at concentrations of glands.
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2. Marsupials
• Marsupial egg ovulated, fertilized, then coated by shell membrane like monotremes.
• Shell membrane shed, egg sinks into depression in uterine wall for last 1/3 of gestation.
• But doesn’t really implant to extent that it does in placentals some wrinkling of surface
but placenta not as invasive.
• In contrast, eutherian gets almost all nutrition through highly invasive placenta, directly
from diffusion from mother’s blood supply.
• After fertilization, marsupial embryos remain inside their mother for only a few days.
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3.Placental Mammals
• Relative maternal investment by gestation versus lactation
• Marsupials: gestation shorter than or about equal to estrous cycle (can be short as about
13 days to 4-5 weeks). Birth occurs before next estrous period.
• Placentals: pregnancy stops estrous cycle, gestation can be longer.
• Marsupials have such short gestation periods, no newborn marsupial weighs >1 g!
• Marsupials require a longer period of extra-uterine development to compensate, usually
in a protective pouch.
• Can be about 2 months to over a year. For the same body size, marsupials invest shorter
times in gestation, but longer times in lactation.
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Behavioral adaptations of mammals
• Adaptations can be either physical or behavioral.
• A physical adaptation is some type of structural modification made to a part of the body.
• A behavioral adaptation is something an animal does – how it acts - usually in response to some
type of external stimulus.
• When you look at an animal, you can usually observe some of its adaptations -- like what it is able
to eat, how it moves, or how it may protect itself. Different animals have many different ways of
trying to stay alive.
• Bats, most rodents and some larger mammals, are nocturnal, sleeping in a cool den, cave or burrow
by day and emerging at night when the temperature drops to a more comfortable level.
• Other desert mammals, like mule deer and elk, are crepuscular during times of extreme
temperatures, which means they are active for a few hours at dusk and dawn.
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• Behavioral Adaptations allow animals to respond to life needs.
• Behavioral Adaptations are behaviors that allow animals to find food, protect itself
from predators, and survive in its environment.
• Each organism has unique methods of adapting to its environment by means of
different actions.
• Become less active
• be crepuscular
• be nocturnal
• be active near water
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Types of Behavioral Adaptations
• 1. Migration
• Seasonal back and forth journeys between two places.
• Animals migrate to find food or weather advantageous to their survival.
• Animals migrate in a set pattern.
• Some travel short distances (birds, bats, whales).
• Some travel long distances (songbirds, shorebirds, waterfowl, hawks, some
bats and whales.
• Some animals move up and down mountain slopes because of snow depth and
food conditions (deer, elk, Mountain Goats, Spotted Owls, some songbirds)
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Hibernation
• This is a very special kind of deep sleep
• It is brought on by short day lengths, cold temperatures and food shortages
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Mortality of mammals
• The events of birth and death are common to all living creatures.
• Few animals in the wild die from old age.
• Mortality refers to the inherent loss of individuals from a population
through death.
• Mortality is difficult to measure because carcasses are hard to locate.
• The fate of animals that disperse or move out of a population can seldom
be determined.
• Several mortality factors (e.g. disease, predation, exposure to severe
weather, starvation or malnutrition, accidents, harvest) can be the
proximate cause of how an individual animal meets its fate.
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• A wildlife population will be subjected to many limiting factors over
time that may produce an overall reduction in population size.
• Despite these inconsistencies, in many cases the overall reduction in
population size from mortality factors across years remains the same.
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Movement in mammals
• Without the ability to move, there would be no life on Earth.
• Mammals use various modes of locomotion, including running, hopping, climbing,
and flying, burrowing, and swimming
• Adaptations in body structure help mammals move around in their particular
environments.
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Chapter Four
Assessment of diversity, distribution and abundance of Mammals
• Biogeographic region: areas of animal and plant of which they distributed on earth surface.
• Geographic regions around the world that have similar environmental conditions are capable of
harboring the same type of biota.
• This situation effectively separates the biosphere into biomes-ecological communities that have the
same climatic conditions and geologic features and that support species with similar life strategies
and adaptations.
• The biome is the fundamental unit of which larger Biogeographic regions (floral and faunal) consist.
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Modern Biogeographic Regions of mammals
• Mammals occupy all continents (only Antarctia has no land mammals)
• Nearctic + Palearctic = Holarctic
• Nearctic = North America, Greenland, and most of Mexico
• 13 families of terrestrial mammals
• 111 genera of placental mammals
• 94 native angiosperm families
• Horses, camels
• Palearctic = Europe, northern Africa, and northern Asia
• 69 native angiosperm families
• Bears, buffalo, moose, caribou, polar bear
• 21 shared species of mammals
• Different glacial histories
• Neotropical Region – South and Central America and adjacent islands
• 200 species of endemic rodents
• Second highest diversity of marsupial mammals Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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• Most diversity in flowering plants
• Great American Interchange led to high extinction rates of Neotropical marsupials
• Ethiopian (African) Region – Sub-Saharan African and parts of Arabian Peninsula
• Most diverse mammal fauna
• Diverse angiosperm flora
• Elephants, mammoths
• Similarities in flora with Australian and Neotropical Regions
• Similarities in fauna with Palearctic
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Oriental Region –
• Indian subcontinent and adjacent south Asia
• 108 families of angiosperms
• Contains tropical vegetation from Australian, Ethiopian, and Neotropical Regions
• Australian Region – Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and New Zealand
• Marsupials
• Bats only native placentals
• 18 families of angiosperms
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Inventory and monitoring of mammals diversity, abundance and distribution
• Small mammals are usually divided into small terrestrial and volant mammals (bats).
• Terrestrial small mammals commonly refer to mammals smaller than the largest rodents
or lagomorphs (hares, rabbits and pikas).
• Small mammals are weight or size is less than a hare (3-5 kg).
• Shrews, moles, most rats, mice, lemmings, gerbils, jerboas, dormice and many squirrels.
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• Medium-sized mammals is often used for small carnivores, small primates,
large rodents, hyraxes, and pangolins
• Some mammals can be detected through non-trapping observational
methods, such as track censuses or automatic camera traps. Hard to survey,
and hence still poorly known species.
• Large mammals like diurnal primates, most carnivores, all perissodactyls
(horses, rhinos, tapirs) and artiodactyls.
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Small mammal
Trapping methods and Bait
• Terrestrial small mammals are often quite abundant, they are rarely observed
and (except in snow or sand).
• They can be easily sampled with sufficient numbers of traps or pitfalls, using
capture-mark-recapture protocols.
• Most small mammals are easily handled requiring relatively little specialized
equipment.
• The use of bait versus no bait and the advantages of pre-baiting when survey
time allows for it. Mammalogy Department of Wildlife and Ecotourism by Jibril
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Sherman Live Trapping
• Live trapping is selected as the primary protocol for small mammals because it
is an effective and efficient for detecting the presence and estimating the
abundance of most small mammal species.
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Sherman Live Trapping Augmentation
• Trap session duration. While 3 days and 80 traps are the recommended
effort for the primary method, to obtain more precise estimates of
abundance.
• Trap grids: are frameworks of spaced bars that are parallel to or cross
each other.
• Trap placement. Placement of traps at various heights above ground
(i.e., placement of traps in trees) has been shown to be effective at
detecting arboreal small mammals such as flying squirrels.
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2.Tomahawk Live Trapping
• Tomahawk traps can be effective at increasing detection rates of larger rodents such as
ground squirrels and woodrats.
• The additional cost of using Tomahawk traps is not typically warranted for simply
increasing squirrel detections.
• Tomahawk traps are most effective at detecting medium-sized mammals.
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Pitfall Traps
• Pitfall traps can be more effective at detecting some of the smaller bodied rodents
compared to Sherman trapping, particularly shrews and gophers, which are typically not
well sampled with Sherman traps.
• Pitfall traps may be the most effective trap for mammals under 10 g.
• They should be checked often to avoid multiple animals captured from attacking each
other or being taken by predators.
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Trackplate and Camera Surveys
• Trackplate and camera surveys are identified as a primary protocol for
medium and large mammals, but they can also be effective at detecting
smaller mammals.
• Tracks of many of the larger squirrel species can be identified to species,
and a variety of tree and ground squirrels are attracted to bait at cameras.
• Track-plate and camera surveys are too expensive relative to their
effectiveness for small mammals to be used to augment Sherman trapping
alone.
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Medium and Large Mammal Monitoring
Observational methods
• Observational methods including camera-trapping, can be used to survey some
groups of medium-sized mammals.
• There are three types of observational methods: (1) direct observations, (2)
identification of dung, tracks and other signs, and (3) camera-trapping, i.e. the
use of remotely set, automatic cameras.
• Tracks, scats and other signs can, instead, be more easily recorded in the course
of any survey. Photographs, possibly including a scale reference, can assist with
later identification confirmations, and localities should be recorded with a
handheld GPS unit.
•
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Core Survey Methods
• A broad suite of species are included in the medium and large mammal section.
• Medium-bodied mammal species include members of many families such as large
sciurids that may be too large to be effectively detected with Sherman live traps,
mustelids, procyonids, ursids, ungulates, and leporids.
• Core survey methods are trackplate and camera surveys combined with visual
encounter surveys.
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Trackplate and Camera Surveys
• Trackplates are very effective at detecting bears and mesocarnivores,
but are less effective at detecting herbivores.
• Tracks of cottontail rabbits can be prevalent, however, when
trackplates are baited to attract forest carnivores.
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Bat Monitoring
• Bats comprise a large proportion of the mammalian species in terrestrial
ecosystems, but they are often not included in monitoring programs
because they are challenging to sample.
• Bat monitoring is not a priority in all regions, so no core survey methods
exist for bats, though monitoring these species is highly recommended
to detecting the majority of species.
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Primary Survey Methods
• Mist netting combined with acoustic(audio) surveys were selected as the primary
survey methods because together they provide the most effective method for surveying
bats when definitive identification of species present is required.
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The Voucher specimens
• How many voucher specimens are to be taken from each inventory
site depends on the study objectives, and also on the particular
regulations and permit specifications of each site and country.
• Many small mammal species cannot confidently be identified in the
field. This can be particularly problematic for shrews.
• Sometimes researchers should even consider taking a larger series of
hard to identify sympatric taxa.
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Estimating Mammalian Populations
• To establish and to appraise management practices, wildlife managers
must estimate the sizes of wildlife populations.
• In practice, population estimates are usually done only once a year, at
best, because of manpower and funding shortages.
• Wildlife managers use 4 general approaches to estimate population
sizes of wildlife: total counts, incomplete counts, indirect counts, and
mark-recapture methods.
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Complete counts or total counts
• A complete count, or total count, counts every member of a
population.
• Where populations of large species occur in open areas, such as
waterfowl on lakes, seals on breeding beaches, or pronghorns on
short grass prairie, aerial counts of most individuals are possible,
especially with the aid of photography.
• Sometimes, wildlife managers can count deer in enclosed populations
using a drive approach: a large group of people crosses the enclosure
in a line, counting all deer that pass in each direction.
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Incomplete counts
• An incomplete count involves counting part of a population and then
extrapolating to the entire population. Quadrats may be established
in a sample area and an attempt made to count all the individuals in
each quadrat.
• The total number of animals is then calculated as the sum of the
animals leaving the area ahead of the drive crews plus the animals
passing back through the drive line minus the animals entering the
quadrat through one of the sides or through the drive line.
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Indirect counts
• As it is often impossible to obtain accurate, visual or auditory counts of the
animals in a population, wildlife managers use indirect signs of the animals
present as indices of relative abundance.
• An index of population indicates relative size of a population and shows
population trends (up, down, stable) but does not provide an actual
estimate of the number of animals.
• Examples of indirect counts include counting numbers of muskrat houses,
counting scats (fecal pellets) of deer and rabbits, and counting numbers of
nests or den sites in a given area.
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Mark-recapture methods
• These methods are used extensively to estimate populations of fish,
game animals, and many non-game animals.
• The method involves capturing a number of animals, marking them,
releasing them back into the population, and then determining the ratio
of marked to unmarked animals in the population.
• Where M is the number of animals marked in the first trapping session, C
is the number of animals captured in a second trapping session, and R is
the number of marked animals recaptured in the second trapping
session.
• Captures a representative sample of various age and sex categories from
within the population.
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MEASURING DIVERSITY
• species diversity as consisting of two components
• 1. Species richness, which is the total number of species present, and
2. Evenness, which measures the extent to which all species in the
community are equally abundant.
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 species richness: the oldest and the simplest
understanding of species diversity expressed as a
number of species in the community (Krebs, 1989);
 species evenness: a measure of the equality in
species composition in a community;
 species heterogeneity: characteristic encompassing
both species abundance and evenness.
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Functional diversity
 Function involves all ecological and evolutionary processes,
including gene flow, disturbances, and nutrient cycling.
 “Functional diversity involves processes of temporal change,
including disturbance events and subsequent succession,
nutrient recycling, population dynamics within species,
various forms of species interactions, and gene flow.
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Structural diversity
Structural diversity refers to the physical organization or
pattern of a system, including the spatial patchwork of
different physical conditions in a landscape, habitat
mosaics, species assemblages of different plant and animal
communities, and genetic composition of subpopulations.
 Structural diversity is defined as the composition of biotic and abiotic
components in forest ecosystems, specific arrangement of the components
in the system as their positioning and mixture.
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Horizontal diversity
 The indices characterizing forest horizontal structure
usually compare a hypothetical spatial distribution
with the real situation.
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Vertical diversity
While there are many indices that measure horizontal
structure, there are only few for vertical structure
Simple measures such as the number of vegetation layers
within a plot can be used as an index of vertical
differentiation .
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Species richness: 3, Species evenness: Low, Species
heterogeneity: Low.
Fig. 1. Assessment of tree species diversity.
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Chapter five: Conservation and management of
mammals
• Conservation is an effort to maintain and use natural resources wisely
in an attempt to ensure that those resources will be available for future
generations.
• Preservation is a means in which natural systems are left alone without
human disturbance or manipulation.
• Preservationists (people who believe in preservation) feel natural
resources should be protected, unspoiled, and untouched by humans.
The goal of preservation is often maintaining the integrity of the
ecosystem as exemplified by nature preserves or wilderness areas.
• Management: The science and art of managing wildlife, their habitats,
and ecosystems for long term human benefit.
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There are two general types of wildlife
management:
• Manipulative management: acts on a population, either changing its
numbers by direct means or influencing numbers by the indirect
means of altering food supply, habitat, density of predators, or
prevalence of disease. This is appropriate when a population is to be
harvested, or when it slides to an unacceptably low density or
increases to an unacceptably high level.
• Custodial management: is preventive or protective. The aim is to
minimize external influences on the population and its habitat. It is
appropriate in a national park where one of the stated goals is to
protect ecological processes. It is also appropriate for conservation of
a threatened species where the threat is of external origin rather than
being intrinsic to the system.
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• How do we conserve mammals?
• In-situ conservation
• In-situ conservation means on-site conservation.
• Ex-situ Conservation
• Ex-situ conservation means literally, off-site conservation.
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Biodiversity Conservation Methods
In-situ biodiversity conservation
• In-situ conservation means the conservation of species within their
natural habitats, it is the most appropriate method for biodiversity
conservation.
• In this strategy you have to find out the area with high biodiversity
means the area in which number of plants and animals are present.
• Through this conservation high biodiversity area could be covered in
the form of natural park/ sanctuary/biosphere reserve etc.
• In this way biodiversity can be conserve in their natural habitat from
human activities
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• Ex-Situ conservation methods
• Ex-situ conservation involves the conservation of biological
diversity outside of their natural habitats.
• This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as
wild and cultivated or species, and draws on a diverse body
of techniques and facilities
Biodiversity Conservation Methods
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 By forming Gene banks: In this store seeds, sperm & ova at
extremely low temperature and humidity.
 It is very helpful to save large variety of species of plants &
animals in a very small space. e.g. sperm and ova banks, seed banks.
 Forming Zoo and botanical garden: for research purpose and
to increase public awareness collecting living organisms for
aquaria, zoos and botanic gardens.
 Collections of In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture.
 Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of
plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild.
• Ex-Situ conservation methods
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1. Ex-situ biodiversity conservation strategy also plays an important
role in recovery programmers for endangered species.
2. The Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 per cent of the world’s
ﬂora - about 4,000 species - on deposit.
3. In agriculture, ex-situ conservation measures maintain
domesticated plants which cannot survive in nature unaided.
4. It provides good platform for research opportunities on the
components of Biological diversity
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5.2. Ecological, Economic, Social cultural,
scientific and educational value of mammals
Ecological values of mammals
Mammals fill a wide range of ecological roles within an ecosystem. Herbivores
such as rabbits and deer are the primary consumers which feed on plant material
and are prey to numerous omnivores and carnivores.
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• Economic values of mammals
• Mammals are used in transport – Buffalo, cow, camel etc. To carry
weight
• Elephant, camel etc. To give dairy products – Cow, cattle, sheep. To
give wool – sheep, rabbit. Serve as food – Flesh of pig, sheep, cattle,
and cow.
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Social, cultural, scientific and educational value of
mammals
• Mammals provide diverse benefits for human being as social, cultural
and other scientific and educational perspectives
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Mammals’ habitat management
• Habitat management is a conservation practice that seeks to
conserve, protect and restore habitat areas for wild plants and
animals, especially conservation reliant species, and prevent their
extinction, fragmentation or reduction in range.
• Grazing
• For conservation grazing, the best approach is to graze with the
number of animals and the length of time it takes to achieve your
objectives.
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Mowing
• Mowing can be used on pasture where grazing is not feasible
(although by its sudden and unselective nature it is not as satisfactory
and can affect invertebrates, and causes damage to anthills).
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Controlled burning
• Controlled fire, to rejuvenate heathers and provide more grazing, is a
traditional management technique on lowland and upland heaths and
some grasslands
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Conservation of rare and endangered species of
mammal
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