introduction for renal system
nephron
protein & urine
definition of microalbuminuria
causes
atherosclerosis role
DM role (micro¯ovascular changes due to atherosclerosis )
Hypertension role
possible sign and symptoms associated with microalbuminuria
enjoooooooooy ....... :)
introduction for renal system
nephron
protein & urine
definition of microalbuminuria
causes
atherosclerosis role
DM role (micro¯ovascular changes due to atherosclerosis )
Hypertension role
possible sign and symptoms associated with microalbuminuria
enjoooooooooy ....... :)
Proteinuria – early indicator of renal disease
Increases the risk of renal impairment, hypertension & cardiovascular disease.
Proteinuria of 1+ or more persisting on 2 subsequent dipstick tests at weekly intervals – requires further investigations.
Causes of transient proteinuria to be excluded
The aim of this practical was to sort out mistakes in the hospital biochemistry laboratory where as laboratory has mixed up some urine samples because the label has been lost
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism. ... As cirrhosis progresses, more and more scar tissue forms, making it difficult for the liver to function (decompensated cirrhosis)
Uric acid is a nitrogenous compound which is formed as a byproduct of metabolic activities and is eliminated by the kidneys. The buildup of uric acid levels in blood gives rise to a number of health conditions. The Uric Acid Test is performed to measure the levels of uric acid in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/uric-acid-1963
Importance of enzymes : The two aminotransferases that are checked are the alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST or SGOT). These liver enzymes form a major constituent of the liver cells. They are present in lesser concentration in the muscle cells.
11 Early Signs of Alcoholic Liver Disease Ayush Remedies
In this guide, we have discussed about 11 early signs of alcoholic liver disease that you must know and cure them right now. Along with this take Livoplus capsules to protect liver from further damage and reverse fatty liver naturally.
Proteinuria – early indicator of renal disease
Increases the risk of renal impairment, hypertension & cardiovascular disease.
Proteinuria of 1+ or more persisting on 2 subsequent dipstick tests at weekly intervals – requires further investigations.
Causes of transient proteinuria to be excluded
The aim of this practical was to sort out mistakes in the hospital biochemistry laboratory where as laboratory has mixed up some urine samples because the label has been lost
Cirrhosis is a late stage of scarring (fibrosis) of the liver caused by many forms of liver diseases and conditions, such as hepatitis and chronic alcoholism. ... As cirrhosis progresses, more and more scar tissue forms, making it difficult for the liver to function (decompensated cirrhosis)
Uric acid is a nitrogenous compound which is formed as a byproduct of metabolic activities and is eliminated by the kidneys. The buildup of uric acid levels in blood gives rise to a number of health conditions. The Uric Acid Test is performed to measure the levels of uric acid in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/uric-acid-1963
Importance of enzymes : The two aminotransferases that are checked are the alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST or SGOT). These liver enzymes form a major constituent of the liver cells. They are present in lesser concentration in the muscle cells.
11 Early Signs of Alcoholic Liver Disease Ayush Remedies
In this guide, we have discussed about 11 early signs of alcoholic liver disease that you must know and cure them right now. Along with this take Livoplus capsules to protect liver from further damage and reverse fatty liver naturally.
HIGH AND LOW BLOOD TEST RESULTS: What Do They Mean?Nelson Vergel
As patient self-education grows with access to information online, more people in the U.S. are taking charge of their health by buying their own blood tests online with no doctor visit via companies like DiscountedLabs.com . Large blood testing networks located all over the United States make it easy for empowered and educated patients to find a lab location near them where they can have their blood drawn or provide a urine or saliva sample. Discounted Labs makes it easy for those consumers to buy and interpret their blood test results so that they can have more educated discussions with their physicians.
After people buy their own blood tests and received their results, it is sometimes difficult to make sense of what high or low blood test values mean when compared with the “normal” ranges provided by blood testing companies. Searching on the Internet may only give people a limited explanation of the health consequences of these high or low blood test values. We will attempt to include the most common blood tests, their ranges and meaning of high or low values in the following article to save people time in their search for next steps.
Note: Consult your health care provider to get explanations about your blood test results and how he or she uses them to diagnose and treat your condition. This information is not meant to provide medical advice or guide any treatment decisions and it is only intended as an educational tool to enable you to have an educated discussion with your health care provider.
Blood test normal values and it's importanceGOPAL KHODVE
Laboratory tests check a sample of your blood, urine, or body tissues. A technician or your doctor analyzes the test samples to see if your results fall within the normal range. The tests use a range because what is normal differs from person to person. Many factors affect test results. These include
Your sex, age and race
What you eat and drink
Medicines you take
How well you followed pre-test instructions
Your doctor may also compare your results to results from previous tests. Laboratory tests are often part of a routine checkup to look for changes in your health. They also help doctors diagnose medical conditions, plan or evaluate treatments, and monitor diseases.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
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Liver function test
1. Albumin - blood (serum)
Albumin is a protein made by the liver. A serum albumin test measures the amount of this protein in the
clear liquid portion of the blood. Albumin helps move many small molecules through the blood,
including bilirubin, calcium, progesterone, and medications. It plays an important role in keeping the fluid
from the blood from leaking out into the tissues.
The test is called a venipuncture.
This test can help determine if a patient has liver disease or kidney disease, or if the body is not
absorbing enough protein.
The normal range is 3.8 - 5.1 grams per deciliter (g/dL).
Lower-than-normal levels of serum albumin may be a sign of:
Kidney diseases
Liver disease (for example, hepatitis, or cirrhosis that make cause ascites)
Decreased blood albumin levels may occur when your body does not get or absorb enough nutrients,
such as:
After weight-loss surgery
Crohn's disease
Low-protein diets
Sprue
Whipple's disease
Increased blood albumin level may be due to:
Dehydration
High protein diet
Having a tourniquet on for a long time when giving a blood sample
Other conditions under which the test may be performed:
Burns (widespread)
Wilson's disease
2. Bilirubin - blood
Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment found in bile, a fluid made by the liver.
This article discusses the laboratory test that is done to measure bilirubin in the blood.
A small amount of older red blood cells are replaced by new blood cells every day. Bilirubin is left after
these older blood cells are removed. The liver helps break down bilirubin so that it can be removed from
the body in the stool.
Bilirubin may also be measured with a urine test.
The test is called a venipuncture.
Large amounts of bilirubin in the blood can lead to jaundice. Jaundice is a yellow color in the skin, mucus
membranes, or eyes.
Jaundice is the most common reason to check bilirubin levels.
Most newborns have some jaundice. The doctor or nurse will often check the newborn's bilirubin
level.
The test may also be done in older infants, children, and adults who develop jaundice.
Normal levels are:
Direct (also called conjugated) bilirubin: 0 to 0.3 mg/dL
Total bilirubin: 0.3 to 1.9 mg/dL
In newborns, bilirubin levels are higher for the first few days of life.
Jaundice can also occur when more red blood cells than normal are broken down. This can be caused
by:
Erythroblastosis fetalis
Hemolytic anemia
Transfusion reaction
The following liver problems may also cause jaundice or high bilirubin levels:
Cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)
Hepatitis
Liver disease
Gilbert's disease
3. Creatinine blood
The creatinine blood test measures the level of creatinine in the blood. This test is done to see how well
your kidneys work.
Creatinine can also be measured with a urine test.
A blood sample is needed.
Creatinine is a chemical waste product of creatine. Creatine is a chemical made by the body and is used
to supply energy mainly to muscles.
This test is done to see how well your kidneys work. Creatinine is removed from the body entirely by the
kidneys. If kidney function is not normal, creatinine level increases in your blood. This is because less
creatinine is released through your urine.
The creatinine level also varies according to a person's size and muscle mass.
A normal result is:
0.7 to 1.4 mg/dL for men
0.6 to 1.1 mg/dL for women.
Higher than normal level may be due to:
Blocked urinary tract
Kidney problems, such as kidney damage or failure, infection, or reduced blood flow
Loss of body fluid (dehydration)
Muscle problems, such as breakdown of muscle fibers (rhabdomyolysis)
Problems during pregancy, such as seizures (eclampsia), or high blood pressure caused by
pregnancy (preeclampsia)
Lower than normal level may be due to:
Conditions involving the muscles and the nerves that control them (myasthenia gravis)
Muscle problems, such as late stage muscle loss (muscular dystrophy)
4. ALT
Alanine transaminase (ALT) is an enzyme found in the highest amounts in the liver. Injury to the liver
results in release of the substance into the blood.
The test is called a venipuncture.
This test is used to determine if a patient has liver damage.
The normal range is up to 40 international units per liter (IU/L).
Increased levels of ALT often means that liver disease is present. Liver disease is even more likely when
levels of other liver blood tests are also increased.
An increase in ALT levels may be due to:
Cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)
Death of liver tissue (liver necrosis)
Hepatitis
Hemochromatosis
Lack of blood flow to the liver (liver ischemia)
Liver tumor or cancer
Medications that are toxic to the liver
Mononucleosis ("mono")
Pancreatitis (swollen and inflamed pancreas)
5. AST
AST (aspartate aminotransferase) is an enzyme found in high amounts in liver, heart, and muscle cells. It
is also found in lesser amounts in other tissues.
This test is mainly done along with other tests (such as ALT, ALP, and bilirubin) to diagnose and
monitor liver disease.
The normal range is:
up to 42 IU/L in men
up to 32 IU/L in women
An increase in AST levels may be due to:
Cirrhosis (scarring of the liver)
Death of liver tissue
Heart attack
Hemochromatosis
Hepatitis
Lack of blood flow to the liver (liver ischemia)
Liver cancer or tumor
Medicines that are toxic to the liver
Mononucleosis ("mono")
Muscle disease or trauma
Pancreatitis (swollen and inflamed pancreas)
AST levels may also increase after:
Burns (deep)
Heart procedures
Seizure
Surgery
6. ALP - blood test
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is a protein found in all body tissues. Tissues with higher amounts of ALP
include the liver, bile ducts, and bone.
A related test is the ALP isoenzyme test.
Reasons the test may be done include:
To diagnose liver or bone disease.
To check, if treatments for those diseases are working.
As part of a routine liver function test.
The normal range is 44 to 147 IU/L (international units per liter).
Higher-than-normal ALP levels
Biliary obstruction
Bone conditions
Osteoblastic bone tumors, osteomalacia, a fracture that is healing
Liver disease or hepatitis
Eating a fatty meal if you have blood type O or B
Hyperparathyroidism
Leukemia
Lymphoma
Paget's disease
Rickets
Sarcoidosis
Lower-than-normal ALP levels
Hypophosphatasia
Malnutrition
Protein deficiency
Wilson's disease
by:Dr. Mohammed H. Al-nakhli