Nagari Quartzite of the Nallamali Group of the Cuddapah Supergroup occurs as outliers in the
southern end of the Cuddapah basin. These are also called Nagari outliers named after the type area of Nagari
Quartzite. All the Nagari outliers exhibit a sequence of basal conglomerate, grit and quartz arenite/quartzite.
Conglomerate is mature and an oligomictic one with the pebbles of quartzite dominating over the chert, quartz,
jasper and vein quartz with siliceous and ferruginous matrix. The clasts in the southern part of the outlier of Sri
Kalahasti have been subjected to shearing resulting in the elongation of pebbles. The grit unit is similar to
conglomerate in composition, but the grains are sub-rounded to angular, medium to coarse grained and set in a
siliceous matrix. The quartzite unit in the Nagari outliers is predominantly fine grained quartz arenite and
occasionally ferruginous in nature. Fining upward of this sequence can be easily recognised in this unit. There
are a number of mini and intermediate cycles, the former is less than half- a- meter and the latter is up to 1
meter in thickness. The varying thickness of the quartzite in different outliers can be considered as a major
cycle. These outliers reflect 2nd order topography. This also exemplifies one of the fundamental concept of
geomorphology that “lithology and structure control the evolution of land forms” put forward by Woolridge.
The major land forms that are clearly visible, even from a distance are the escarpments and cuestas. The hills
are synclinal in structure and are made up of highly resistant quartzite. The intervening valleys that are
anticlinal have granite in the core. The relative competency has played a major role in carving out the mature
topography. It is evident that the synclinal structure that has developed at the time of formation has been refined
by the subsequent tectonics, resulting in the formation of synclinal hills
Five days field report of Gilgit Baltistan .
Started from Mansehra then Besham then Kohistan then Gilgit and at last stop is in Hunza.
Visited dasu and basha dam.
each and every feature realed to geology is marked in this field report.
Towards Cost Efficient Soil Carbon Measurement and MonitoringCarbon Coalition
Professor Alex. McBratney of Sydnet University delivers a stunning presentation on remote sensing and its promise of satellites 'spying' on plants to help save the world from climate crisis.
Five days field report of Gilgit Baltistan .
Started from Mansehra then Besham then Kohistan then Gilgit and at last stop is in Hunza.
Visited dasu and basha dam.
each and every feature realed to geology is marked in this field report.
Towards Cost Efficient Soil Carbon Measurement and MonitoringCarbon Coalition
Professor Alex. McBratney of Sydnet University delivers a stunning presentation on remote sensing and its promise of satellites 'spying' on plants to help save the world from climate crisis.
What is fault?
Fault terminology
Fault plane:
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Slip and separation:
Separation
Classification of faults
Apparent movement as basis
Normal faults
Graben
Reverse faults:
Strike – slip faults
On the basis of altitude (dip and strike)
Mode of occurrences as basis
Parallel faults
Enechelon faults
Peripheral faults
Radial faults
On the basis of slip
Engineering consideration of faults
This is an introductory soil science presentation that I give to Master Gardeners, agribusiness personnel, farmers, and soil science students. Please feel free to contact me at andykleinschmidt@gmail.com with any comments regarding the presentation.
Myanmar known until recently as Burma, is slowly but steadily starting to attract foreign investment, driven mainly by international resource firms eager to tap into the mineral-rich South East Asia's country. After more than half a century of military ruling, Burma has started benefitting from the recent suspension of sanctions by Canada, the United States and the European Union. Myanmar's gold production is increasing and could prove a key factor for the country's economic growth, but many gold miners are suffering from lung diseases due to inadequate equipment and antiquated practices. In mineral-rich areas of Kachin State, taxes from Burmese and Chinese gold mining provides an important income stream to the Kachin Independence Organization. However, these mining companies use mercury in an environmentally hazardous extraction process, which can lead to long-lasting damage for the area's forests and river ways.
Heavy Mineral Analysis and Provenance Studies of Surma Sediments in and Aroun...RSIS International
A thick sedimentary succession belonging to Surma
Group (Miocene) is well exposed along the road section (NH-37)
in and around Nungba, Tamenglong district, Western Manipur.
The Surma sediments have been analyzed for their heavy
mineral suite following heavy liquid separation technique. The
research result reveals the dominance of transparent varieties
over the opaques. The diagnostic non-opaque variety includes
Zircon, Tourmaline, Rutile, Garnet, Phlogopite, Sphene,
Scapolite, Humite, Glauconite, Glaucophane, Wollastonite,
Sillimanite, Staurolite, Chlorite, Chloritoid, Chondrodite and
Hedenbergite. The heavy minerals suite is characterised by the
presence Euhedral, Anhedral as well as Rounded to Sub-rounded
varieties indicating a mixed provenance for the Surma
sedimentation. Among the opaque variety iron-oxide is most
abundant. The value for ZTR Index has been calculated to be
40.4 indicating a mineralogically an overall submature for
Surma sediments.
The prospecting and mining of base metal in India
dates back to 3000 B.C. All the base metal deposit of India has
surface manifestations in various forms. From 19th century to the
middle of the present century, certain European companies
started a modern phase of base metal exploration and
development. Earlier, the search for base metal was confined to
the close study of surface features. In 1940 ground geophysical
survey work has been introduced in order to search the mineral
deposits. The total world production of lead and zinc metals are
about 3.9 and 11.4 million tonnes respectively in 2009. The
leading producing countries for lead is China (41% of world
production), followed by Australia (15%), USA (10%), Peru (8%)
and Mexico (4%). The Indian production of lead and zinc ore is
7.10 million tonnes in the year 2009-10, it includes 136095 tonnes
of lead concentrate and 1224077 tonnes zinc concentrate. In
India, the Western Indian Craton (Rajasthan) is the main
provider of base metal to the country. It contributes nearly 85%
of the estimated lead and zinc. In Western India Craton, the main
metallotect of lead and zinc from an elongated NE – SW trending
polygon, this covers an area of about 20000 sq. km. It comprises
three metalliferous belts mainly, the Pur-Banera belt, the
Rajpura-Dariba- Bethumni belt, and the Sawar belt and two
metalliferous enclaves namely; the Agucha and the Kayar
enclave.
The 20 km. long crescent shaped, Rajpura-Dariba-Bethumni
belt striking N-S to NNE-SSW. The ancient mining and smelting
activities have been noticed at both ends of the belts. Towards the
southernmost part of the belt, the typical gossan is exposed in the
form of hill. B.C. Gupta, Geological survey of India (G.S.I) first
reported Dariba – Bethumni belt, in the year 1934. The
systematic exploration of the belt was initiated by G.S.I in 1962
and continuing till present. In the Rajpura-Dariba-Bethumni belt
Rajpura and Dariba blocks are under active production since
1983, whereas in the Sindesar Khurd block the production was
started in 2007, under the ownership of Hindustan Zinc Limited
of Vedanta Group. Recently the exploration activity is going on in
the Sonariya Khera block, Chittor block and Bethumni block
under the possession of Hindustan Zinc Limited.
Geology and Petrography of Sandstone of Murree formation, Kuldana formation and Abbottabad formation Nakial and Dandli section sub Himalayas district Kotli, Azad Jammu Kashmir, Pakistan.
Petrological and Geochemical Studies on Granitoids in BibinagarBhongir Area, ...IJERA Editor
The Granitoids of the Bibinagar- Bhongir area in the Nalgonda district are purely high potassic calc alkaline and
meta aluminous and A-type belongs to Peninsular Gneissic Complex of the Eastern Dharwar Craton. The
petrographic study of granitoids indicates that of pure magmatic origin in the form of different magmatic
textures viz. perthitic, porphyritic and poiklitic textures. Geochemically the granitoids are rich in K2O & Na2O
suggesting source from calc-alkaline magma. The Granitoids are falling mostly in the volcanic arc field on Yb
vs Ta discrimination plot. The REE pattern shows strong Eu negative anomaly, suggesting early separation of
plagioclase and the enhanced level of LILE relative to HFSE in Bibinagar-Bhongir granitoids points to the
subduction zone enrichment and/or crustal contamination of the source region.
An Examination of Effectuation Dimension as Financing Practice of Small and M...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Does Goods and Services Tax (GST) Leads to Indian Economic Development?iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Childhood Factors that influence success in later lifeiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Emotional Intelligence and Work Performance Relationship: A Study on Sales Pe...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Customer’s Acceptance of Internet Banking in Dubaiiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
A Study of Employee Satisfaction relating to Job Security & Working Hours amo...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Consumer Perspectives on Brand Preference: A Choice Based Model Approachiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Student`S Approach towards Social Network Sitesiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Broadcast Management in Nigeria: The systems approach as an imperativeiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
A Study on Retailer’s Perception on Soya Products with Special Reference to T...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
A Study Factors Influence on Organisation Citizenship Behaviour in Corporate ...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Consumers’ Behaviour on Sony Xperia: A Case Study on Bangladeshiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Design of a Balanced Scorecard on Nonprofit Organizations (Study on Yayasan P...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Public Sector Reforms and Outsourcing Services in Nigeria: An Empirical Evalu...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Media Innovations and its Impact on Brand awareness & Considerationiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Customer experience in supermarkets and hypermarkets – A comparative studyiosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Social Media and Small Businesses: A Combinational Strategic Approach under t...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Secretarial Performance and the Gender Question (A Study of Selected Tertiary...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Implementation of Quality Management principles at Zimbabwe Open University (...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Organizational Conflicts Management In Selected Organizaions In Lagos State, ...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of business and managemant and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications inbusiness and management. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Lithology, Structure and Geomorphology of the Nagari outliers, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India
1. IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics (IOSR-JAGG)
e-ISSN: 2321–0990, p-ISSN: 2321–0982.Volume 3, Issue 5 Ver. I (Sep. - Oct. 2015), PP 43-50
www.iosrjournals.org
DOI: 10.9790/0990-03514350 www.iosrjournals.org 43 | Page
Lithology, Structure and Geomorphology of the Nagari outliers,
Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India
U.Suresh, V. Gope Naik, D.B.Sankar
Department of Geology, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh – 517502, India.
Abstract: Nagari Quartzite of the Nallamali Group of the Cuddapah Supergroup occurs as outliers in the
southern end of the Cuddapah basin. These are also called Nagari outliers named after the type area of Nagari
Quartzite. All the Nagari outliers exhibit a sequence of basal conglomerate, grit and quartz arenite/quartzite.
Conglomerate is mature and an oligomictic one with the pebbles of quartzite dominating over the chert, quartz,
jasper and vein quartz with siliceous and ferruginous matrix. The clasts in the southern part of the outlier of Sri
Kalahasti have been subjected to shearing resulting in the elongation of pebbles. The grit unit is similar to
conglomerate in composition, but the grains are sub-rounded to angular, medium to coarse grained and set in a
siliceous matrix. The quartzite unit in the Nagari outliers is predominantly fine grained quartz arenite and
occasionally ferruginous in nature. Fining upward of this sequence can be easily recognised in this unit. There
are a number of mini and intermediate cycles, the former is less than half- a- meter and the latter is up to 1
meter in thickness. The varying thickness of the quartzite in different outliers can be considered as a major
cycle. These outliers reflect 2nd
order topography. This also exemplifies one of the fundamental concept of
geomorphology that “lithology and structure control the evolution of land forms” put forward by Woolridge.
The major land forms that are clearly visible, even from a distance are the escarpments and cuestas. The hills
are synclinal in structure and are made up of highly resistant quartzite. The intervening valleys that are
anticlinal have granite in the core. The relative competency has played a major role in carving out the mature
topography. It is evident that the synclinal structure that has developed at the time of formation has been refined
by the subsequent tectonics, resulting in the formation of synclinal hills.
Keywords: Nagari outliers, Geomorphology, 2nd
order topography, Quartzite, Land forms. Synclinal hills.
I. Introduction
The Nagari Quartzite, exposed mainly in the southeastrn part of the Cuddapah basin rests over the
Papaghni Group with a profound angular unconformity in the area south of Kadapa and further south it rests
directly on the granitic basement till the end of the basin. This is dominantly an arenaceous unit with a well
developed basal conglomerate. It has intercalation of purple shale beds, mostly in the lower horizons. This unit
is occassionally intruded by dolerite sills. The Nagari Quartzite is named after an outlier, Nagarimur konda, (Δ
857m), situated in the southernmost part of the Cuddapah basin in the Chittoor district. Nagari Quartzite is
considered homotaxial with the Bairenkonda Quartzite of the Nallamalai Group (Sen & Narasimha Rao, 1967;
Nagaraja Rao 1976; Nagaraja Rao et. al., 1987).
The Nagari Quartzite is exposed continuously from Chintakommadinne in the north extending
southward into the Cheyyeru country constituting the Palkonda range (west of Cheyyeru river) up to Tirumala,
where the western scarp of the range demarcates the Archaean-Cuddapah boundary. Further, it occurs as the
capping of the conspicuous Nagarimur Konda, after which it is named. It is seen as outliers north of Nagarimur
Konda in the Narayanavanam, Virapaka Kota - Nagalapuram and Sri Kalahasti outlying ranges.
II. Objectives
Previous work: The pioneering work on the geology of the outliers was by William King (1872). He was the
first to recognize the triple division character of the outliers. He gave a detailed account on the area. Murty,
(1950, 1952 and 1953), carried out mapping in these area sand described the outliers. Narayanaswami (1966)
described the tectonics of the Cuddapah basin as a whole in detail. Nagaraja Rao et. al., (1977) carried out the
geological mapping of the terrain, using aerial photographs. This study has brought to light many features,
especially the structural pattern of the doubly plunging synclines. Nagaraja Rao et. al., (1987) elucidated the
stratigraphy, structure and evolution of the Cuddapah basin. Abdul Matin (1996) carried out detail structural
studies on the Sri Kalahasti outlier.
2. Lithology, Structure and Geomorphology of the Nagari outliers, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh...
DOI: 10.9790/0990-03514350 www.iosrjournals.org 44 | Page
III. Lithological Units Of The Nagari Quartzite And Their Characters
The following sequence of units is established in the type area:
Quartzite with inter – bedded shale.
Grit
Conglomerate
The above sequence is observed throughout the horizon. But, in the Guvvalacheruvu Ghat section,
purple shale bed overlies the conglomerate instead of the grit beds. The lithology is shown (Fig.1).
Fig.1. Geology, Geomorphology and Structural Disposition of the Nagari outliers
Conglomerate and grit:
This is an oligomictic conglomerate with pebbles of quartzite dominating over the chert, jasper and
vein quartz with siliceous and ferruginous matrix. The conglomerate is best developed in the northern part of the
Nagari horizon in the area south of Apparajupalle, located 6km south-west of the Kadapa town. In this area, the
basal beds have sub-rounded to rounded and moderately sorted boulders of quartzite, measuring up to 1m along
the longer axes. This is like a boulder bed. This is followed by cobble/pebble bed, which in turn is overlain by
grit, and the total thickness of the conglomerate is about 35 - 40 m. King (1872) called this conglomerate as
Chintakommadinne conglomerate and considered it as ferruginous conglomerate. The conglomerate when
traced further south in the strike direction gets reduced in thickness, measuring about 1-7 m. However, there is
no change in composition except a slight change in constitution i.e., absence of the basal boulder bed. The
conglomerate bed in the Tirumala hills, the location where GSI has identified and preserved it as a National
Monument, is a thin oligomictic conglomerate having the same composition as stated above. But, the
conglomerate exposed behind the Karnataka choultry i.e., on the way to Microwave station at Tirumala, is a
polymictic conglomerate having boulders of hornblende granite, in addition to the normal constituents of
quartzite, chert, jasper and vein quartz, in a siliceous/ferruginous matrix.
The conglomerates are well developed in the Nagari and adjacent outliers. The constitution and
composition of the conglomerate is similar to that in Apparajupalle, i.e., the basal boulder beds have well
rounded boulders measuring up to 20 cm along the longer axes, which is mainly due to tectonic affect in this
area.
The conglomerate in the Sri Kalahasti outlier is mainly clast dominant, oligomictic, and mature. The
normal size of the clasts is 4 to 5 cms along the longer axes and there are still smaller clasts indicating highly ill
sorted nature. However, all the pebbles are quartzitic in composition and well rounded pointing to their maturity
(Fig.2). There are very a few places, where the conglomerate is matrix dominant. In the southern part, the clasts
in the conglomerate are stretched due to the effect of tectonism (Fig.3). The conglomerate beds in the other
outliers are not well developed.
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Fig.2.The well rounded Conglomerate pebbles
Fig.3.The conglomerate is not well developed in thin pebble bed
The conglomerate is followed by grit. But the grits noticed in the outliers are constituted of angular to
sub-rounded, medium to coarse-grained quartz grains with siliceous matrix. The coarseness of the grains and
the saccharoidal nature of the unit have facilitated deep weathering resulting in the formation of a typical
geomorphic unit i.e., like a wall like feature. In the Nagari horizon wherever the conglomerate is absent, the
basal beds are mostly gritty in nature.
Quartzite (Ferruginous Quartzite/Quartz Arenite):
The quartzite of the Nagari Quartzite in general is ferruginous quartzite and can be called as iron oxide
quartzite. All through its strike length, this character is conspicuous. But, this ferruginous quartzite is
interbedded with quartz arenite bands as noticed on the way to Tirumala. These are fine to medium grained,
white to half white (slightly brownish) and thick-bedded quartzite. But towards north in the main basin, these
gradually give way to iron oxide quartzite, as seen in the Chintakommadinne area located 5km southwest of the
Kadapa town. The Nagari horizon has also shale intercalations associated with quartzite unit as noticed in the
Tirumala ghat section. These are thinly bedded and ferruginous and can be easily identified by their geomorphic
expression, i.e., they form slight depressions if they are on slopes or; they form valleys if their magnitude is
high. These beds also grade gradually into quartzite units suggesting lateral facies variation.
The lithology, structure and land form of the Nagari Outliers is shown in (Fig.1). The quartzite unit of
the outliers in general is orthoquartzite type, occassionally; it also indicates a ferruginous nature. The grain size
of the orthoquartzite is generally fine and only at few places as in the case of Narayanavanam outliers it is
medium grained. It is seen that the quartzite unit has a number of fining upward sequences in the form of
mini and intermediate cycles. The thickness of the mini cycle is less than half a meter. The intermediate ones
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are up to one meter. In fact the bedding type of joints noticed in these can be considered as reflection of
intermediate cycles. The total thickness of the quartzite unit varies in each outlier; this thickness in each outlier
can be identified as a major cycle.
The quartzite units in almost all the outliers exhibit planar cross bedding (Fig.4) and ripple marks. The
former is conspicuous in the Sri Kalahasti outlier on way to the temple tank. This unit in the Virapanakota–
Nagalapuram outlier reflects fine-grained and cherty nature with a greasy look. It breaks with conchoidal
fracture and gives metallic sound when hit with hammer. In the Nagalapuram outlier, the quartzite unit indicates
spotted nature. The same unit in the Vadamalapeta outlier has the development of a few white micaceous
minerals, because of which the surface reflects vitreous nature.
Fig.4.The quartzite unit exhibiting planar cross bedding
IV. Structure Of The Nagari Outliers
All the outliers exhibit the doubly plunging synclinal structure. The fold axis in the southern part
plunges towards NNE at about 300
and in the northern part it plunges to SSE at the same angle. This gives a
curved nature to the fold axis. This is very conspicuous in the Nagalapuram-Virapaka kota outlier. Similarly, all
the outliers reflect doubly plunging nature. This is clearly seen in the satellite image also (Fig.5).
Fig.5.The Satellite Imagery reflecting doubly plunging nature
The curving of the fold axes has modified the morphology/configuration of the outliers. The
compression in the WNW – ESE direction has given rise to the first deformation to the outliers. The sigmoidal
nature of the axis could be attributed to a major shear movement along the Karakamabadi fault in the north and
the river Arani fault in the south, (Fig.1).
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Faults trending NNE-SSW are also observed at Narayanavanam, Vadamalapeta and Perundesam
(Fig.1). The effect of tectonism is seen in the form of grooves and lineation and in the formation of quartz veins
(Fig.6). The clasts in the conglomerate are also stretched due to tectonism as observed in the area south of the
Sri Kalahasti outlier.
Fig.6. The effect of tectonism in the form of grooves, lineation and in the formation of quartz veins
Shearing is very common in all the outliers. The quartzite is highly crushed (Fig.7) due to the shear
effects that are best observed in the Nagalapuram outlier.
Fig.7. The highly sheared quartzite
In the southern end of the Nagalapuram outlier, the top most quartzite unit stands up majestically as a
big wall (Fig.8). The dip of the bed in this outlier can be visualised even from a distance, (Fig.5), as there are
argillaceous and arenaceous units alternating with each other and the former supporting the dense vegetation.
The beds at the end of the outlier dip towards north at an angle of 450
–550
. There are thin assorted beds of
conglomerate within this. The quartzite pebbles in the conglomerate are well rounded and reflect clear effects of
shear. The fracture system noticed in the pebbles is not mirrored in the matrix.
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Fig.8. The top most quartzite unit in the outlier stands up majestically as a big wall
V. Morphology Of The Outliers
Vaidyanadhan (1964) described the geomorphology of the Cuddapah basin. The geomorphic
expression of an each outlier can be considered as the reflection of lithology and structure to a great extent.
Though all the Nagari outliers are separated, interestingly, their geomorphic expression is similar, i.e.,
all are synclinal hills (Fig.1). This again points to the influence of lithology in the formation of the order of
topography. The geomorphological land forms in terms of cuesta and scarp are shown in (Fig.1).
The major geomorphic land forms that are visible clearly are the scarps and the cuestas.
Scarps:
These are seen all around the hills of the Nagari outliers. The degree of development varies from place
to place, as the units involved are rudaceous and arenaceous that are resistant to weathering they are standing
out as majestic scarps. However, the nature of the litho units, viz., conglomerate, grit and quartz arenite have a
say in the final formation of scarp.
The conglomerate beds form scarps of lesser magnitude, due to the coarseness of the rock. Further, the
pebbles can be easily removed by the weathering of the matrix; the grit is more compact and stands up as scarps
of considerable magnitude and it is the quartzite, which stands up as high scarps (like majestic walls), due to
fineness, cherty and compact nature of the unit (Fig.8).
Cuesta:
All the outliers have cuesta type of land form, wherein, the obsequent slope is partly represented by the
scarp and rest by debris slope and the consequent slope is indicated by the gentle dip - slope, (Fig.9).
Fig.9. The outlier exhibiting cuesta type of land form
VI. Geomorphic Evolution Of The Nagari Outliers
The study of the image (Fig.5) clearly indicates that all the outliers structurally represent synformal
hills separated by anticlinal valleys. The synclinal hills and anticlinal valleys generally reflect second order or
mature topography. This is also designated as reversal in topography. Wooldridge and Morgan, (1937)
authoritatively advocated the development of 2nd
order topography.
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This is a result of the rocks in the anticlinal area being are generally softer, so that it can be easily
brought down to the ground level by pediplanation or peneplanation and the rocks in the synclinal portion
should be harder and resistant to weathering, so that they can stand out as hills. The net result will be the rocks
in the synclinal troughs will be standing out as hills and the rocks in the anticlinal core will be valleys. Similar
set up can be observed in the case of the topography south of the river Cheyyeru in the Nandalur area of the
Cuddapah basin, where carbonate (in the core of an anticline) and quartzite (in the form of lenses in the trough
of a syncline) are involved in the formation of 2nd
order topography. The ultimate result depends upon the
relative hardness of the lithounits involved.
But, the nature of the rocks in the synclinal hills and the anticlinal valleys of the Nagari outliers are
both hard rocks, i.e., quartzite and granite respectively. Though both the rocks involved are hard and compact,
the relative competency has played a major role in carving out the mature topography. The granite being
relatively softer was brought down in relief. Structure has also played its role in the process of bringing down
the relief.
Structure versus Geomorphology:
Structurally all the outliers reflect doubly plunging synclines. The question that arises is that whether
the 2nd
order topography is due to the structure or due to the geomorphic imprint?. In the earlier paragraphs, it
was stated that the quartzite being very resistant to weathering is standing out majestically. An attempt has being
made to consider the role of structure is carving out the 2nd
order topography.
The foundering of the earth’s crust at different places, has given rise to minor individual basins. These
were separated by the inter-basinal granitic basement highs.
From the above consideration, it is evident that the beds in the outliers could have had qua qua inversal
dips due to the basinal feature of the site of deposition. This set up due to subsequent compression has gained
hight perpendicular to the direction of compression refining the structure. The compression involved helped in
shortening of the crust and raising the elevation of the sediment and the granitoid basement. The fracture system
resulted due to the tectonism has affected the basement as well as the sediments. This fabric developed due to
tectonism has quickened the work of geomorphic processes in bringing down the relief of the granitic basement,
which is relatively softer especially in the inter outlier areas. Philips (2005) stressed that the fundamental control
on landscape evolution of the Nagari outliers is weathering. The same is true in the case of Nagari outliers in the
outlier zone, the basement is protected by the ultra resistant quartzite. The quartzite, thus gained the higher relief
reflecting the present configuration.
The said analysis clearly points to the fact that the concept of Wooldridge (1937) is applicable to the
formation of 2nd
order topography of the Nagari outliers.
Thus, the entire set up of the Nagari outliers is evidence supporting the theory, that the evolution of
landforms is controlled to a large extent by two factors, i.e., the lithology and structure.
VII. Conclusions
All the outliers of the Nagari Quartzite reflect the triple division of basal conglomerate followed by grit
that inturn is overlain by quartzite. Each lithological unit can be recognised from a distance due to their
geomorphic expression. Doubly plunging synclinal structure is common to all the outliers. The major
geomorphic features are scarps and cuestas. The 2nd
order topography, i.e., synclinal hills and anticlinal valleys
is very conspicuous in the outliers. The development of 2nd
order topography has been initiated from the
beginning of the formation of outliers. The role of lithology and structure in the evolution of land forms is
clearly reflected in the outliers. The refolded structure could be due to major shears acting between Karkambadi
in the north and the river Arani in the south.
Acknowledgements
The author desires to place on record his sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr.B.K.Nagaraja Rao,
former director of the Geological Survey of India, Hyderabad for his useful suggestions and planning the field
trips during the progress of the work. The author is grateful to Prof. R.C.Hanumanthu, Department of Geology,
Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati for his valuable counsel, constant and untiring guidance and
encouragement throughout the course of research work.
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