An integrated study involving detailed lithofacies analysis and source rock evaluation were carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and assess the petroleum potentials of the Ikom–Mamfe embayment, southeastern Nigeria. Sedimentological field mapping involving detailed description of lithologic characteristics and facies characterisation was carried out. Geochemical studies were carried out to determine the quantity of organic matter total organic carbon (TOC), soluble organic matter (SOM), the organic matter quality (organic matter type) and level of maturity. Results show that the dominant vertical succession of the various lithofacies indicate a general finning upward succession with basal massive pebbly sandstone, medium to coarse grained sandstones with intercalation of shale and mudstones. Seven lithofacies A to G, were identified. These include: conglomerates, massive pebbly sandstone, trough cross-bedded sandstone, planar cross-bedded sandstone, shale/mudstone facies. These facies were compared with established standard facies association for determining paleoenvironment of deposition. The facies analysis carried out pointed to fluvial (alluvial – braided) depositional system as the environment of deposition. TOC values range from 0.05 – 4.13 wt% indicating poor to excellent and SOM range from 200 – 6000 ppm indicating also poor to excellent. The amount of pyrolizable carbon derived as S1 and S2 peaks suggested that the source rocks possess organic matter capable of generating hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and oxygen indices (HI and OI) ranged from 0.24 to 656 and 0.53 to 61.90 mg/gTOC respectively. Analyses of the evaluated source rock shows that the hydrocarbon potential of the study area is lean and typically of a reworked terrestrial deposit of fluvial depositional system.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Geochemistry and Tectonic Setting of Cretaceous Sediments from Al Bauga Area,...IJRES Journal
Geochemistry; major and trace elements of Al Bauga sediments have been investigated to understand their provenance and tectonic setting. The tectonic discriminant diagrams placed the majority of Al Bauga sediments within the passive margin setting. These sediments generally, are enrich in SiO2 and depleted in K2O and Na2O. The discriminant function diagram of major elements, the enrichment of Zr, Th, La and lack of V, Co and Ni indicate that the source area of most of Al Bauga sediments are felsic provenance.
Provenance, tectonic setting and diagenesis of the Mn-Fe coated terrigenous c...iosrjce
The arkosic and subordinate quartz-arenitic Mn-Fe coated terrigenous clasts were discovered to
occur in association with manganese nodules hosted by weathered Mn-Fe rich alluvial-fluvial sediments of the
Tertiary period in Carletonville area. The weathered Mn-Fe rich alluvial-fluvial sediments form the modern soil
profiles in the study area. The Scanning Electron Microscope and petrographic studies of the terrigenous clasts
indicated elevated content of manganese oxide precipitated in pore spaces between the framework grains as
well as forming surface coatings on hand specimen. These clasts are mined with manganese nodules in the study
area. The manganese nodules were formed from in situ concentration of Mn-oxide due to surficial weathering of
the underlying Mn-rich dolomites of the Malmani Subgroup and then concentrated as Mn-rich residues,
encircling rock fragments in soil profile. In contrast, Mn-Fe coated terrigenous clasts and the alluvial-fluvial
sediments were sourced from older geological basins. Therefore, the purpose of the study were to construct a
possible source area of Mn-Fe coated clasts and Mn-rich alluvial-fluvial sediments which hosted Mn-nodules in
the mine area and from the results deduce the overall source of manganese that is mined in the area. On the
basis of framework compositional analysis, the sediments were found to have been sourced from metamorphic
and granitic origins in a cratonic interior to recycle orogen and sedimentation occurred in low plain,
temperate, humid to subhumid climate. The sediment sources resembled the properties of the Archean granites
and gneisses of the Witwatersrand Supergroup and Rand Anticline ridge (quartzite formation) exposed far off
along the northern part of the study area on a high topographic mountain.
Integrated ERT and Magnetic Surveys in a Mineralization Zone in Erkowit - Red...IJERA Editor
The present study focus on integrated geophysical surveys carried out in the mineralization zone in Erkowit region, Eastern Sudan to determine the extensions of the potential ore deposits on the topographically high hilly area and under the cover of alluvium along the nearby wadi and to locate other occurrences if any. The magnetic method (MAG) and the electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were employed for the survey. Eleven traverses were aligned approximately at right angles to the general strike of the rock formations. The disseminated sulfides are located on the alteration shear zone which is composed of granitic and dioritic highly ferruginated rock occupying the southwestern and central parts of the area, this was confirmed using thin and polished sections mineralogical analysis. The magnetic data indicates low magnetic values for wadi sedimentary deposits in its southern part of the area, and high anomalies which are suspected as gossans due to magnetite formed during wall rock alteration consequent to mineralization. The significant ERT imagesdefinelow resistivity zone as traced as sheared zones which may associated with the main loci of ore deposition. The study designates that correlation of magnetic and ERT anomalies with lithology are extremely useful in mineral exploration due to variations in some specific physical properties of rocks.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Geochemistry and Tectonic Setting of Cretaceous Sediments from Al Bauga Area,...IJRES Journal
Geochemistry; major and trace elements of Al Bauga sediments have been investigated to understand their provenance and tectonic setting. The tectonic discriminant diagrams placed the majority of Al Bauga sediments within the passive margin setting. These sediments generally, are enrich in SiO2 and depleted in K2O and Na2O. The discriminant function diagram of major elements, the enrichment of Zr, Th, La and lack of V, Co and Ni indicate that the source area of most of Al Bauga sediments are felsic provenance.
Provenance, tectonic setting and diagenesis of the Mn-Fe coated terrigenous c...iosrjce
The arkosic and subordinate quartz-arenitic Mn-Fe coated terrigenous clasts were discovered to
occur in association with manganese nodules hosted by weathered Mn-Fe rich alluvial-fluvial sediments of the
Tertiary period in Carletonville area. The weathered Mn-Fe rich alluvial-fluvial sediments form the modern soil
profiles in the study area. The Scanning Electron Microscope and petrographic studies of the terrigenous clasts
indicated elevated content of manganese oxide precipitated in pore spaces between the framework grains as
well as forming surface coatings on hand specimen. These clasts are mined with manganese nodules in the study
area. The manganese nodules were formed from in situ concentration of Mn-oxide due to surficial weathering of
the underlying Mn-rich dolomites of the Malmani Subgroup and then concentrated as Mn-rich residues,
encircling rock fragments in soil profile. In contrast, Mn-Fe coated terrigenous clasts and the alluvial-fluvial
sediments were sourced from older geological basins. Therefore, the purpose of the study were to construct a
possible source area of Mn-Fe coated clasts and Mn-rich alluvial-fluvial sediments which hosted Mn-nodules in
the mine area and from the results deduce the overall source of manganese that is mined in the area. On the
basis of framework compositional analysis, the sediments were found to have been sourced from metamorphic
and granitic origins in a cratonic interior to recycle orogen and sedimentation occurred in low plain,
temperate, humid to subhumid climate. The sediment sources resembled the properties of the Archean granites
and gneisses of the Witwatersrand Supergroup and Rand Anticline ridge (quartzite formation) exposed far off
along the northern part of the study area on a high topographic mountain.
Integrated ERT and Magnetic Surveys in a Mineralization Zone in Erkowit - Red...IJERA Editor
The present study focus on integrated geophysical surveys carried out in the mineralization zone in Erkowit region, Eastern Sudan to determine the extensions of the potential ore deposits on the topographically high hilly area and under the cover of alluvium along the nearby wadi and to locate other occurrences if any. The magnetic method (MAG) and the electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were employed for the survey. Eleven traverses were aligned approximately at right angles to the general strike of the rock formations. The disseminated sulfides are located on the alteration shear zone which is composed of granitic and dioritic highly ferruginated rock occupying the southwestern and central parts of the area, this was confirmed using thin and polished sections mineralogical analysis. The magnetic data indicates low magnetic values for wadi sedimentary deposits in its southern part of the area, and high anomalies which are suspected as gossans due to magnetite formed during wall rock alteration consequent to mineralization. The significant ERT imagesdefinelow resistivity zone as traced as sheared zones which may associated with the main loci of ore deposition. The study designates that correlation of magnetic and ERT anomalies with lithology are extremely useful in mineral exploration due to variations in some specific physical properties of rocks.
Base Metal Mineralization in the Precambrian Rocks of Okemesi-Ijero Area, So...Scientific Review SR
The evaluation of base metals in the bedrocks of Okemesi / Ijero area, southwestern Nigeria has
been carried out to assess their potentials, level of accumulation and enrichment. The methodology included
systematic geological and geochemical mapping of the rocks using grid-controlled sampling method at a
sampling density of one sample per 500m. Ten rock samples were collected at different locations of the study
area. The results obtained showed that the major oxides such as SiO
2, Al2O3, TiO
2,
Fe
2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, K2
O and P2O5 were detected in variable proportions. While SiO2 varied between 70.59% and 98.70%,
Al2O3 ranged between 15.73% and 0.61%. There is abundance of barium (Ba), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) with
concentration values of 1.6-9.8, 1.24-7.1 and 0.05-10.00 ppm respectively. Base metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Bi
and Cr enrichment factors and their geo-accumulation index indicates moderately significance to very high
enrichment of Cu (10 – 70%) , Pb (20 – 40%) and Bi (10 – 40%). The geo-accumulation indices suggest
geogenic concentration of the base metals in the host rocks rather than anthropogenic inputs. The PCA elements
loaded Au, As, Ag, Pt and Os on the same factor and they are pathfinder elements of Gold. Correlation
coefficients indicate strong positive correlations between the elements. This implies that they are strongly related
and therefore of the same source, also suggesting geogenic sources.
Investors have been avoiding the Okurike Barite due to paucity of
information on its economic worth in spite of the high demand for barites by the
local industries. This study was embarked upon to determine the spread and
industrial quality of the barite deposit in order to bridge the information gap. The
Okurike Barite mineralised site was investigated using geophysical Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and
geological techniques. The geophysical data were acquired along three profiles
while the barite samples were analysed using the laboratory techniques in order to
determine their elemental compositions and physical characteristics. Results show
that the barites occur with gravels, breccias and weathered basement materials
within a very limited region. The resistivity values of the barite mineralised region
were observed to vary between 731 and ~1500 Ωm. The barites are characterised by
specific gravity of 4.4, density of 3.64 g/cm3, porosity of 28%, uniaxial compressive
strength of 29.4 kN/mm2 and water absorption capacity of 1.5%. The elements Ba
and Fe dominate the elemental composition with 77.28 and 19.98% respectively.
BaO, Fe2O3 and MnO are preferentially enriched with abundance of 71.28, 21.40
and 6.10% respectively. These results show that the industrial quality of the
Okurike Barite is high although its spread is limited.
Petrographic evaluation of rocks around Arikya and its environs, North Centra...Premier Publishers
The study area covers Arikiya and parts of Wayopini in Lafia Local Government Area of Nassarawa State, situated in central Nigeria. This falls within the Basement Complex of central Nigeria that forms part of the Upper Proterozoic mobile belt extending from Algeria across the Sahara into Nigeria, Benin and the Cameroon. The area consists of gneisses, granite gneisses, migmatites and Porphyroblastic gneiss. Dolerite dyke and Pegmatite form intrusions into the host rocks. The major rock forming minerals are plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz and biotite. The major structures includes joints, foliations, quartz vein, fold and fault, Predominant structural trends include the NE-SW and NW-SE with minor E-W and N-S structural trends which are in agreement with the general trend of structures in the Basement Complex. Mineral resource potential of the study area include feldspar and mica from the gneiss and pegmatites as well as alluvial garnets, columbites, tantalite, and cassiterite (derived from the pegmatites) as evidenced from mining activities along river channels in the entire area.
Preliminary Studies of the Litho-Structural Evolution of Areas Around Obudu N...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Rocks underlying the northeastern sector of Obudu area forms part of the Bamenda massif which is a westward extension of the Precambrian terrains of Cameroon into southeastern Nigeria. These rocks are frequently found in the basement complex of Nigeria and include the migmatitic gneiss as the early metamorphic tectonites constituting over 60% of the outcropping rocks in the study area. The basement rock of the study area comprised of the migmatite gneiss and biotite-hornblende garnetiferous gneiss as well as the porphyroblastic gneiss and granite gneiss which formed the basement intruded by the Older granites (Pan-African granitoids). The Older granites in this area include charnockite, porphyritic granite, medium grained granite, diorite and pegmatite/aplite with relatively undeformed veins of dolerite and quartz. The presence of garnet nodules in the biotite-hornblende gneiss indicates high grade tectono-thermal metamorphism of a possible sedimentary protholith. The shearing observed in some rock outcrops are indication that there have been a series of structural deformation alongside magmatism and metamorphism in the area.
Tectono-magmatic Development of Accreted West Burma Block from Gondwana Land-...MYO AUNG Myanmar
Western Myanmar, between the strike-slip Sagiang Fault in the east and the frontal thrusts of the Indo-Burman Ranges in the west, was identified by Mitchell (1989) as an allochthonous continental block, now largely overlain by Cenozoic sediments and an active magmatic arc.
Mitchell (1989) named this continental block ‘Mount Victoria Land’ from an occurrence of metamorphic rocks, taken to represent the outcrop of the continental basement. This block has been termed the ‘West Burma Block’ by Hutchison (1989).
Sedimentological characteristics of Ajali sandstone at Okigwe, Anambra basin,...Premier Publishers
The Ajali sandstones exposed along Enugu-Port Harcourt Express Road at Okigwe, Imo State, Nigeria were studied to evaluate textural parameters, mineralogy, and statistical measures to depict the depositional pattern of sediments. A total of eleven samples were collected for this study from five locations based on their stratigraphic position (i.e. from top to bottom). Results of grain size analysis reveal a unimodal frequency distribution which indicates a single provenance for the sandstones. Statistics reveals a graphic mean range from 1.5 to 2.8, sorting range from 0.45 to 1.58, skewness range from -0.58 to 0.32, and kurtosis between 0.38 and 2. The sandstones are false bedded and burrowed, medium to fine grained, poorly to moderately sorted, strongly coarsely skewed and platykurtic. The sandstones generally lack of microfauna and macrofossils. Mineralogically, the sandstones contain, on the average, 32.56% monocrystalline quartz, 9.33% polycrystalline quartz, 16.09% plagioclase, 25.91% potassium feldspar, 4.88% clay matrix and 14.27% opaque. The major framework composition classifies the sandstones as sub-feldspathicarenite. Bivariate and multivariate results reveal shallow the Ajali sandstones may have been deposited at fluvial deltaic to marine environments
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE ...Premier Publishers
Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite. The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1 clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz, clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70 – 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of tropical sediment.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Geological and Geochemical Characterization of the Neoproterozoic Derudieb Me...Premier Publishers
The meta- volcano - sedimentary sequences in the northern part of the Red Sea Hills comprise a sequence of metamorphosed rocks at low green schist facies of metamorphism consisting of lava flows, tuffs to breccias and agglomerates range in composition from basalts and andesites to rhyolites. Geologically the meta volcano sedimentary sequences is divided into metavolcanic rocks and metasediments. The metavolcanic rocks range in composition from mafic to felsic. The metasediments are represented by banded schist, quartzite and marble. The samples collected for study lie within the field of sub-alkaline rocks except one mafic volcanic sample, which plot near the boundary in the alkaline field and thus follow a transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkaline trend (increasing FeO* relative to MgO). The behavior of the large ion lithophile element (LILE) in the studied metavolcanics confirms the early fractionation of plagioclase. These rocks display negative Nb anomalies, suggesting that the melt source was modified by subduction-related fluids. Tectonically all felsic samples fall in the field of volcanic arc granitoids whereas the mafic units plot firmly within the plate margin field.
Developing Conceptual Aquifer Geometry, Structural Geological Control and Pos...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics (IOSR-JAGG) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Applied Geology and Geophysics. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Applied Geology and Geophysics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Sedimentology and Geochemical Evaluation of Campano-Maastrichtian Sediments, ...Premier Publishers
The Cretaceous sediments in the Anambra Basin (SE Nigeria) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales, siltstones and sandstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. Statistics reveals a graphic mean range from 1.5 to 2.8, sorting range from 0.45 to 1.58, skewness range from -0.58 to 0.32 and kurtosis between 0.38 and 2 for the Ajali Sandstone. From these results, the sandstones in the area are dominated by medium to coarse grains, poorly to moderately sorted, coarse skewed and very platykurtic sediments. Further sedimentological evaluation in six localities indicates fluvial-flood plain-marginally marine facies for the Mamu and Nsukka Formations and marine for the Nkporo and Enugu Shales. The geochemical evaluations show that total organic carbon (TOC) (8.95wt%) of the samples constitutes that of good to excellent source rock with oil, oil/gas, gas prones for kerogen types I, II/III, III indicated by Rock-Eval S2/S3 (9.13). The high oxygen index (OI) (42.61 mgCO2g-1TOC) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. The Tmax (430oC), indicate the immaturity to onset of maturity of these source rocks. Potential reservoir units occur in the fluvial sandstones of the Ajali Formation and in the marginal marine and flood plain sandstones of the Mamu Formation. The shales and claystones of the Nsukka and Imo Formations may provide regional seals.
Base Metal Mineralization in the Precambrian Rocks of Okemesi-Ijero Area, So...Scientific Review SR
The evaluation of base metals in the bedrocks of Okemesi / Ijero area, southwestern Nigeria has
been carried out to assess their potentials, level of accumulation and enrichment. The methodology included
systematic geological and geochemical mapping of the rocks using grid-controlled sampling method at a
sampling density of one sample per 500m. Ten rock samples were collected at different locations of the study
area. The results obtained showed that the major oxides such as SiO
2, Al2O3, TiO
2,
Fe
2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, K2
O and P2O5 were detected in variable proportions. While SiO2 varied between 70.59% and 98.70%,
Al2O3 ranged between 15.73% and 0.61%. There is abundance of barium (Ba), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) with
concentration values of 1.6-9.8, 1.24-7.1 and 0.05-10.00 ppm respectively. Base metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Bi
and Cr enrichment factors and their geo-accumulation index indicates moderately significance to very high
enrichment of Cu (10 – 70%) , Pb (20 – 40%) and Bi (10 – 40%). The geo-accumulation indices suggest
geogenic concentration of the base metals in the host rocks rather than anthropogenic inputs. The PCA elements
loaded Au, As, Ag, Pt and Os on the same factor and they are pathfinder elements of Gold. Correlation
coefficients indicate strong positive correlations between the elements. This implies that they are strongly related
and therefore of the same source, also suggesting geogenic sources.
Investors have been avoiding the Okurike Barite due to paucity of
information on its economic worth in spite of the high demand for barites by the
local industries. This study was embarked upon to determine the spread and
industrial quality of the barite deposit in order to bridge the information gap. The
Okurike Barite mineralised site was investigated using geophysical Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and
geological techniques. The geophysical data were acquired along three profiles
while the barite samples were analysed using the laboratory techniques in order to
determine their elemental compositions and physical characteristics. Results show
that the barites occur with gravels, breccias and weathered basement materials
within a very limited region. The resistivity values of the barite mineralised region
were observed to vary between 731 and ~1500 Ωm. The barites are characterised by
specific gravity of 4.4, density of 3.64 g/cm3, porosity of 28%, uniaxial compressive
strength of 29.4 kN/mm2 and water absorption capacity of 1.5%. The elements Ba
and Fe dominate the elemental composition with 77.28 and 19.98% respectively.
BaO, Fe2O3 and MnO are preferentially enriched with abundance of 71.28, 21.40
and 6.10% respectively. These results show that the industrial quality of the
Okurike Barite is high although its spread is limited.
Petrographic evaluation of rocks around Arikya and its environs, North Centra...Premier Publishers
The study area covers Arikiya and parts of Wayopini in Lafia Local Government Area of Nassarawa State, situated in central Nigeria. This falls within the Basement Complex of central Nigeria that forms part of the Upper Proterozoic mobile belt extending from Algeria across the Sahara into Nigeria, Benin and the Cameroon. The area consists of gneisses, granite gneisses, migmatites and Porphyroblastic gneiss. Dolerite dyke and Pegmatite form intrusions into the host rocks. The major rock forming minerals are plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz and biotite. The major structures includes joints, foliations, quartz vein, fold and fault, Predominant structural trends include the NE-SW and NW-SE with minor E-W and N-S structural trends which are in agreement with the general trend of structures in the Basement Complex. Mineral resource potential of the study area include feldspar and mica from the gneiss and pegmatites as well as alluvial garnets, columbites, tantalite, and cassiterite (derived from the pegmatites) as evidenced from mining activities along river channels in the entire area.
Preliminary Studies of the Litho-Structural Evolution of Areas Around Obudu N...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Rocks underlying the northeastern sector of Obudu area forms part of the Bamenda massif which is a westward extension of the Precambrian terrains of Cameroon into southeastern Nigeria. These rocks are frequently found in the basement complex of Nigeria and include the migmatitic gneiss as the early metamorphic tectonites constituting over 60% of the outcropping rocks in the study area. The basement rock of the study area comprised of the migmatite gneiss and biotite-hornblende garnetiferous gneiss as well as the porphyroblastic gneiss and granite gneiss which formed the basement intruded by the Older granites (Pan-African granitoids). The Older granites in this area include charnockite, porphyritic granite, medium grained granite, diorite and pegmatite/aplite with relatively undeformed veins of dolerite and quartz. The presence of garnet nodules in the biotite-hornblende gneiss indicates high grade tectono-thermal metamorphism of a possible sedimentary protholith. The shearing observed in some rock outcrops are indication that there have been a series of structural deformation alongside magmatism and metamorphism in the area.
Tectono-magmatic Development of Accreted West Burma Block from Gondwana Land-...MYO AUNG Myanmar
Western Myanmar, between the strike-slip Sagiang Fault in the east and the frontal thrusts of the Indo-Burman Ranges in the west, was identified by Mitchell (1989) as an allochthonous continental block, now largely overlain by Cenozoic sediments and an active magmatic arc.
Mitchell (1989) named this continental block ‘Mount Victoria Land’ from an occurrence of metamorphic rocks, taken to represent the outcrop of the continental basement. This block has been termed the ‘West Burma Block’ by Hutchison (1989).
Sedimentological characteristics of Ajali sandstone at Okigwe, Anambra basin,...Premier Publishers
The Ajali sandstones exposed along Enugu-Port Harcourt Express Road at Okigwe, Imo State, Nigeria were studied to evaluate textural parameters, mineralogy, and statistical measures to depict the depositional pattern of sediments. A total of eleven samples were collected for this study from five locations based on their stratigraphic position (i.e. from top to bottom). Results of grain size analysis reveal a unimodal frequency distribution which indicates a single provenance for the sandstones. Statistics reveals a graphic mean range from 1.5 to 2.8, sorting range from 0.45 to 1.58, skewness range from -0.58 to 0.32, and kurtosis between 0.38 and 2. The sandstones are false bedded and burrowed, medium to fine grained, poorly to moderately sorted, strongly coarsely skewed and platykurtic. The sandstones generally lack of microfauna and macrofossils. Mineralogically, the sandstones contain, on the average, 32.56% monocrystalline quartz, 9.33% polycrystalline quartz, 16.09% plagioclase, 25.91% potassium feldspar, 4.88% clay matrix and 14.27% opaque. The major framework composition classifies the sandstones as sub-feldspathicarenite. Bivariate and multivariate results reveal shallow the Ajali sandstones may have been deposited at fluvial deltaic to marine environments
Evidence of Clay Mineralization on Tropical Sediments from Afikpo Graben, SE ...Premier Publishers
Sedimentation in the Afikpo graben (SE Nigeria) thus commenced with the Campano-Maastrichtian marine and paralic shales of the Enugu and Nkporo Formations, overlain by the Mamu Formation. The fluviodeltaic and subtidal sandstones of the Ajali Formation lie on the Mamu Formation. The overlying deltaic Nsukka and marine shales of the Imo and Ameke Formations were deposited during the Paleocene. These two formations (Mamu and Nsukka) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales and siltstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. The primary minerals are Feldspar, Quartz, Pyroxenes, Haematite. The secondary minerals are further classified into two major groups of 1:1 clay minerals and 2:1 clay minerals. The 1:1 clay minerals are kaolinite and halloysite, while the examples of 2:1 mineral are montmorillonite, vermiculite and illite. Clay fractions of shale samples obtained from the Cretaceous Mamu and Nsukka Formations in the Afikpo graben, South eastern Nigeria through the process of sedimentation technique were air – dried and analyzed using the empyrean diffractometer manufactured by Panalytical to determine the presence of clay mineralization in the area. The result shows that the bulk mineral composition of the shales comprises of quartz, clay minerals, carbonates and iron rich minerals, while the dominant clay mineral is kaolinite (70 – 80%) with minor amounts of illite (4 – 7 %) and smectite (10 – 20) as typical composition of tropical sediment.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Geological and Geochemical Characterization of the Neoproterozoic Derudieb Me...Premier Publishers
The meta- volcano - sedimentary sequences in the northern part of the Red Sea Hills comprise a sequence of metamorphosed rocks at low green schist facies of metamorphism consisting of lava flows, tuffs to breccias and agglomerates range in composition from basalts and andesites to rhyolites. Geologically the meta volcano sedimentary sequences is divided into metavolcanic rocks and metasediments. The metavolcanic rocks range in composition from mafic to felsic. The metasediments are represented by banded schist, quartzite and marble. The samples collected for study lie within the field of sub-alkaline rocks except one mafic volcanic sample, which plot near the boundary in the alkaline field and thus follow a transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkaline trend (increasing FeO* relative to MgO). The behavior of the large ion lithophile element (LILE) in the studied metavolcanics confirms the early fractionation of plagioclase. These rocks display negative Nb anomalies, suggesting that the melt source was modified by subduction-related fluids. Tectonically all felsic samples fall in the field of volcanic arc granitoids whereas the mafic units plot firmly within the plate margin field.
Developing Conceptual Aquifer Geometry, Structural Geological Control and Pos...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics (IOSR-JAGG) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of Applied Geology and Geophysics. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Applied Geology and Geophysics. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Sedimentology and Geochemical Evaluation of Campano-Maastrichtian Sediments, ...Premier Publishers
The Cretaceous sediments in the Anambra Basin (SE Nigeria) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales, siltstones and sandstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. Statistics reveals a graphic mean range from 1.5 to 2.8, sorting range from 0.45 to 1.58, skewness range from -0.58 to 0.32 and kurtosis between 0.38 and 2 for the Ajali Sandstone. From these results, the sandstones in the area are dominated by medium to coarse grains, poorly to moderately sorted, coarse skewed and very platykurtic sediments. Further sedimentological evaluation in six localities indicates fluvial-flood plain-marginally marine facies for the Mamu and Nsukka Formations and marine for the Nkporo and Enugu Shales. The geochemical evaluations show that total organic carbon (TOC) (8.95wt%) of the samples constitutes that of good to excellent source rock with oil, oil/gas, gas prones for kerogen types I, II/III, III indicated by Rock-Eval S2/S3 (9.13). The high oxygen index (OI) (42.61 mgCO2g-1TOC) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. The Tmax (430oC), indicate the immaturity to onset of maturity of these source rocks. Potential reservoir units occur in the fluvial sandstones of the Ajali Formation and in the marginal marine and flood plain sandstones of the Mamu Formation. The shales and claystones of the Nsukka and Imo Formations may provide regional seals.
Oil generative potential of shale from Asu river group in the Afikpo basin, S...Premier Publishers
Shale from Asu River Group strata of the Afikpo Basin has been characterised by geochemical techniques. The aims of this study were to assess the quality of its organic matter, evaluate its thermal evolution and highlight its potential as a source rock. The determination of hydrocarbon potential of shale from the Asu River Group in Afikpo Basin, Southeastern Nigeria was carried out using some Rock-Eval pyrolysis parameters such as TOC, HI, OI, S2/S3 and S1 + S2. The shale samples were collected at Amenu and Amauro outcrop localities. The samples were examined and analyzed to determine their oil and gas potential. The HI values range from 3.95 to 47.98 mgHC/gTOC and average value of 23.17 mgHC/gTOC indicates a Type III kerogen. Tmax values ranging from 349 to 454 oC with an average of 405 oC shows that the shale samples are immature to marginally mature. The total organic carbon (TOC) (5.60 wt%) and S1 + S2 (3.05) of the shale constitutes that of excellent source rock with gas-prone kerogen indicated by Rock-Eval S2/S3 (1.71). The high oxygen index (OI) (20.84 mgCO2g-1TOC) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. Generated petroleum may not have reached the threshold for hydrocarbon expulsion but a review of petroleum system elements in the basin will stimulate high prospects in the Afikpo basin.
Hydrocarbon Generative Potential of Campanian Source Rock from Ihube, Anambra...Premier Publishers
Shale from basal Campanian strata of the Anambra Basin has been characterized by geochemical techniques. The aims of this study were to assess the quality of its organic matter, evaluate its thermal evolution and highlight its potential as a source rock. The HI versus Tmax and HI versus OI diagrams were used in classifying the organic matter in the shale indicating the presence of Type III kerogen. Tmax values between 424 and 441ºC indicate that the shales are thermally immature to marginally mature with respect to petroleum generation. Hydrogen Index (HI) values range from 13.89 to 38.89mgHC/gTOC while S1 + S2 yields values ranging from 0.19 to 0.78mgHC/g rock, suggesting that the shale have gas generating potential. The TOC of shale samples of the studied Ihube locality ranges from 1.31 to 1.98%, an indication of a good source rock of terrestrially derived organic matter. The high oxygen index (OI) (26.93 mgCO2g-1TOC) and TS (1.32) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. Based on the kerogen type, shales from Ihube, Nkporo Formation will equally generate oil and gas if its organic matter attained sufficient thermal temperature.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Integrated Geophysical Studies Over Parts of Central Cross River State for th...iosrjce
A total of 71 Vertical Electrical Soundings were carried out using Schlumberger electrode
configuration for the evaluation of groundwater potential in parts of central Cross River State, Nigeria.
Interpretation of data showed three to six geoelectric layers. Productive shallow and deep aquifer zones were
identified at depths of 60 m and 150 m respectively, corresponding to a resistivity range of 100-500 Ωm for
shallow aquifers and 1000-2500 Ωm for deep aquifers respectively. The lithologic data of the aquifers revealed
sand/sandstone and very coarsed grained sand/fractured basement, respectively. Seismic refraction survey was
also carried out within the same study area for the foundation study of rocks. The studies revealed an average
thickness of 4.5 m (probably sand/clay) and 10.0 m (probably gravelly sand/shale) for the first and second
layers respectively. The range of velocities for the first three layers are 602 m/s to 960 m/s, 378 m/s to 2,424 m/s
and 1,587 m/s to 5,368 m/s, respectively, indicating that the soils in the area are not homogeneous. It is inferred
from the relative high values of calculated elastic constants in most of the locations, that the soils are well
consolidated and as such suitable for large engineering construction in such locations, while in the rest of the
locations the soils are considered unconsolidated and unsuitable for large construction work due to the relative
low values of the elastic constants.
Determining the Hydrocarbon Generative Potential of the Turonian Eze-Aku Shal...Premier Publishers
The Nigeria Benue Trough is an intracratonic rift structure whose evolution is related to the early Cretaceous opening of the South Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Guinea. Study of the lower Benue Trough has revealed that the lower Benue Trough is rich in organic matters and as such capable of yielding significant quantity of hydrocarbons. The Eze-Aku shale in Ibii area is located in the lower part of Benue Trough. Five (5) representative Turonian Eze-Aku Shale samples were collected and analyzed to assess the petroleum generative potential by sediment logical analysis. The Shale (Eze-Aku Shale) is dark grey in color and highly fissile. From analysis carried out the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content of the Eze-Aku Shale sample from the five (5) sections ranges from 0.51 to 1.17wt. %. The amount of Organic Carbon Content exceeds the minimal 0.5 wt. % threshold for a potential source rock, which indicates that the Shale can generate oil and gas, also the percentage of Organic Matters (OM) as shown ranges from 91.90% to 98.00% suggest a high contribution of organic matter which supports the accumulation of hydrocarbon.
Petrological Characterisitics and Paleodepositional Environment of the Sandst...iosrjce
Petrological characteristics of sandstones outcropping in Bende and Isimkpu areas was carried out
using sieve analysis and pebble morphometric studies in determination of the paleodepositional environment for
Sandstone facies of the Ameki Group. Lithostratigraphic studies show that the area is underlain by sandstones,
calcareous sandstone, shales, mudstones and clays. This has been organized into: Unit A: Idima junction shale;
B: Bende sandstone; C: Onuinyang calcareous siltstone and D: Isimkpu sandstone, from oldest to youngest.
Representative sandstone samples were collected from outcrops widely distributed in the area. Results show that
the sandstones are fine to coarse grained and the pebbles are rounded to sub-rounded and dominantly bladed to
elongate. Computed percentages indicate the sandstones are dominantly well sorted, negatively skewed and
extremely leptokurtic. Mean values for the flatness index, elongation and oblate-prolate index (OPI) are 0.47,
0.70 and 2.37 respectively. The synthesis and integration of these values indicated fluviatile with subordinate
littoral/shallow marine setting for sandstones of Ameki Formation in the study area.
The San Sai oil field is an important oil field in the Fang Basin. The sedimentary facies and basin
evolution have been interpreted using well data incorporated with 2D seismic profiles. The study indicates that
the Fang Basin was subsided as a half-graben in the Late Eocene by regional plate tectonism. The deposit is
thicker westward toward the major fault. The sedimentary sequence of the Fang Basin can be subdivided into
two formations which comprise five associated depositional environments. The results of total organic carbon
content (TOC), vitrinnite reflectance (%Ro), Rock-Eval pyrolysis and headspace gas analyses and the study of
basin modeling using PetroMod1D software are compiled and interpreted. They indicate that source rocks of
kerogen type II and III with 1.78 – 3.13%wt. TOC were mature and generated mainly oil at 5,600 – 6,700 feet
deep (Middle Mae Sod Formation). Source rocks of kerogen type II and III with 2.07 – 39.07%wt. TOC
locating deeper than 6,700 feet (Lower Mae Sod Formation) were mature to late mature and generated mainly
gas at this level. According to TTI (Time Temperature Index) modeling using PetroMod11.1D software,
hydrocarbon generation took place in the Middle Miocene and the generated oil and gas migrated through
fractures and faults to accumulate in traps at 2,900-4,000 feet deep (Upper Mae Sod Formation).
Evaluation of Agro-morphological Performances of Hybrid Varieties of Chili Pe...Premier Publishers
In Benin, chilli pepper is a widely consumed as vegetable whose production requires the use of performant varieties. This work assessed, at Parakou and Malanville, the performance of six F1 hybrids of chilli including five imported (Laali, Laser, Nandi, Kranti, Nandita) and one local (De cayenne), in completely randomized block design at four replications and 15 plants per elementary plot. Agro-morphological data were collected and submitted to analysis of variance and factor analysis of mixed data. The results showed the effects of variety, location and their interactions were highly significant for most of the growth, earliness and yield traits. Imported hybrid varieties showed the best performances compared to the local one. Multivariate analysis revealed that 'De cayenne' was earlier, short in size, thin-stemmed, red fruits and less yielding (≈ 1 t.ha-1). The imported hybrids LaaliF1 and KrantiF1 were of strong vegetative vigor, more yielding (> 6 t.ha-1) by developing larger, long and hard fruits. Other hybrids showed intermediate performances. This study highlighted the importance of imported hybrids in improving yield and preservation of chili fruits. However, stability and adaptation analyses to local conditions are necessary for their adoption.
An Empirical Approach for the Variation in Capital Market Price Changes Premier Publishers
The chances of an investor in the stock market depends mainly on some certain decisions in respect to equilibrium prices, which is the condition of a system competing favorably and effectively. This paper considered a stochastic model which was latter transformed to non-linear ordinary differential equation where stock volatility was used as a key parameter. The analytical solution was obtained which determined the equilibrium prices. A theorem was developed and proved to show that the proposed mathematical model follows a normal distribution since it has a symmetric property. Finally, graphical results were presented and the effects of the relevant parameters were discussed.
Influence of Nitrogen and Spacing on Growth and Yield of Chia (Salvia hispani...Premier Publishers
Chia is an emerging cash crop in Kenya and its production is inhibited by lack of agronomic management information. A field experiment was conducted in February-June and May-August 2021, to determine the influence of nitrogen and spacing on growth and yield of Chia. A randomized complete block design with a split plot arrangement was used with four nitrogen rates as the main plots (0, 40, 80, 120 kg N ha-1) and three spacing (30 cm x 15 cm (s1), 30 cm x 30 cm (s2), 50 cm x 50 cm (s3)). Application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth and seed yield of Chia. Stem height, branches, stem diameter and leaves increased by 23-28%, 11-13%, 43-55% and 59-88% respectively. Spacing s3 significantly increased (p≤0.05) vegetative growth. An increase of 27-74%, 36-45% and 73-107% was recorded in number of leaves, stem diameter and dry weight, respectively. Chia yield per plant was significantly higher (p≤0.05) in s3. However, when expressed per unit area, s1 significantly produced higher yields. The study recommends 120 kg N ha-1 or higher nitrogen rates and a closer spacing of 15 cm x 30 cm as the best option for Chia production in Kenya.
Enhancing Social Capital During the Pandemic: A Case of the Rural Women in Bu...Premier Publishers
Social capital plays an essential role in empowering people for social and economic change even during the pandemic. A livelihood project of the government was implemented among the members of a women’s association of a disadvantaged upland community in Bukidnon province, Southern Philippines for inclusive development. This study was conducted to determine the influence of some socio-economic attributes and the change in the knowledge level on the social capital of the rural women amidst the pandemic. The activities of the project were implemented considering the health protocols imposed by the government during the health crisis. The findings revealed that the trainings conducted resulted to a positive change in the knowledge level among the rural women. This facilitated the production of vegetables for their households and generated additional income very necessary during the pandemic especially that other economic activities were hindered. Similarly, there was a significant increase in the social capital of the rural women during the last two years. The main occupation, sources of income and their ethnicity significantly influenced the social capital of the rural women. The rural development workers and policymakers must consider the social capital of the group in the implementation of poverty alleviation programs.
Impact of Provision of Litigation Supports through Forensic Investigations on...Premier Publishers
This paper presents an argument through the fraud triangle theory that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases is adequate for effective prosecution of perpetrators as well as corporate fraud prevention. To support this argument, this study operationalized provision of litigation supports through forensic audit and investigations, data mining for trends and patterns, and fraud data collection and preparation. A sample of 500 respondents was drawn from the population of professional accountants and legal practitioners in Nigeria. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection and this was mailed to the respective respondents. Resulting responses were analyzed using the OLS multiple regression techniques via the SPSS statistical software. The results reveal that the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations, fraud data mining for trends and patterns and fraud data collection and preparation for court proceedings have a positive and significant impact on corporate fraud prevention in Nigeria. This study therefore recommends that regulators should promote the provision of litigation supports through forensic audits and investigations in relation to corporate fraud cases in publicly listed firms in Nigeria, as this will help provide reports that are acceptable in court proceedings.
Improving the Efficiency of Ratio Estimators by Calibration WeightingsPremier Publishers
It is observed that the performances of most improved ratio estimators depend on some optimality conditions that need to be satisfied to guarantee better estimator. This paper develops a new approach to ratio estimation that produces a more efficient class of ratio estimators that do not depend on any optimality conditions for optimum performance using calibration weightings. The relative performances of the proposed calibration ratio estimators are compared with a corresponding global [Generalized Regression (GREG)] estimator. Results of analysis showed that the proposed calibration ratio estimators are substantially superior to the traditional GREG-estimator with relatively small bias, mean square error, average length of confidence interval and coverage probability. In general, the proposed calibration ratio estimators are more efficient than all existing estimators considered in the study.
Urban Liveability in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Perspective fr...Premier Publishers
Urbanization and quality of urban life are mutually related and however it varies geographically and regionally. With unprecedented growth of urban centres, challenge against urban development is more in terms of how to enhance quality of urban life and liveability. Making sense of and measuring urban liveability of urban places has become a crucial step in the context of sustainable development paradigm. Geographical regions depict variations in nature of urban development and consequently level of urban liveability. The coastal regain of West Bengal faces unusual challenges caused by increasing urbanization, uncontrolled growth, and expansion of economic activities like tourism and changing environmental quality. The present study offers a perspective on urban liveability of urban places located in coastal region comprising of Purba Medinipur and South 24 Parganas districts. The study uses the liveability standards covering four major pillars- institutional, social, economic and physical and their indicators. This leads to develop a City Liveability Index to rank urban places of the region, higher the index values better the urban liveability. The data for the purpose is collected from various secondary sources. Study finds that the eastern coastal region of the country covering state of West Bengal depicts variations in index of liveability determined by physical, economic, social and institutional indicators.
Transcript Level of Genes Involved in “Rebaudioside A” Biosynthesis Pathway u...Premier Publishers
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni is a plant which has recently been used widely as a sweetener. This medicinal plant has some components such as diterpenoid glycosides called steviol glycosides [SGs]. Rebaudioside A is a diterpenoid steviol glycoside which is 300 times sweeter than table sugar. This study was done to investigate the effect of GA3 (50 mg/L) on the expression of 14 genes involved in Rebaudioside A biosynthesis pathway in Stevia rebaudiana under in vitro conditions. The expression of DXS remarkably decreased by day 3. Also, probably because of the negative feedback of GA3 on MEP-drived isoprenes, GGDS transcript level reached its lowest amount after GA3 treatment. The abundance of DXR, CMS, CMK, MCS, and CDPS transcripts showed a significant increase at various days after this treatment. A significant drop in the expression levels of KS and UGT85C2 is detected during the first day. However, expression changes of HDR and KD were not remarkable. Results revealed that the level of transcript of UGT74G1 and UGT76G1 up regulated significantly 4 and 2 times higher than control, respectively. However, more research needs to shed more light on the mechanism of GA3 on gene expression of MEP pathway.
Multivariate Analysis of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Clones on Mor...Premier Publishers
Information on genetic variability for biochemical characters is a prerequisite for improvement of tea quality. Thirteen introduced tea clones characterized with objective; assessing tea clones based on morphological characters at Melko and Gera research stations. The study was conducted during 2017/18 cropping season on experimental plots in RCBD with three replications. Data recorded on morphological traits like days from pruning to harvest, height to first branch, stem diameter, leaf serration density, leaf length, leaf width, leaf size, petiole length, leaf ratio, internode length, shoot length, number of shoot, canopy diameter, hundred shoot weight, fresh leaf yield per tree. Cluster analysis of morphological trait grouped into four clusters indicated, the existence of divergence among the tested clones. The maximum inter-cluster distance was between clusters I and IV (35.27) while the minimum inter cluster distance was observed between clusters I and II (7.8).Principal components analysis showed that the first five principal components with eigenvalues greater than one accounted 86.45% for 15 morphological traits. Generally, the study indicated presence of variability for several morphological traits. However, high morphological variation between clones is not a guarantee for a high genetic variation; therefore, molecular studies need to be considered as complementary to biochemical studies.
Causes, Consequences and Remedies of Juvenile Delinquency in the Context of S...Premier Publishers
This research work was designed to examine nature of juvenile offences committed by juveniles, causes of juvenile delinquency, consequences of juvenile delinquency and remedies for juvenile delinquency in the context of Sub-Saharan Africa with specific reference to Eritrea. Left unchecked, juvenile delinquents on the streets engage in petty theft, take alcohol or drugs, rape women, rob people at night involve themselves in criminal gangs and threaten the public at night. To shed light on the problem of juvenile delinquency in the Sub-Saharan region data was collected through primary and secondary sources. A sample size of 70 juvenile delinquents was selected from among 112 juvenile delinquents in remand at the Asmara Juvenile Rehabilitation Center in the Eritrean capital. The study was carried out through coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 70 juvenile delinquents. The survey evidence indicates that the majority of the juvenile respondents come either from families constructed by unmarried couples or separated or divorced parents where largely the father is missing in the home or dead. The findings also indicate that children born out of wedlock, families led by single mothers, lack of fatherly role models, poor parental-child relationships and negative peer group influence as dominant causes of juvenile infractions. The implication is that broken and stressed families are highly likely to be the breeding grounds for juvenile delinquency. The survey evidence indicates that stealing, truancy or absenteeism from school, rowdy or unruly behavior at school, free-riding in public transportation, damaging the book of fellow students and beating other young persons are the most common forms of juvenile offenses. It is therefore, recommended that parents and guardians should exercise proper parental supervision and give adequate care to transmit positive societal values to children. In addition, the government, the police, prosecution and courts, non-government organizations, parents, teachers, religious leaders, education administrators and other stakeholders should develop a child justice system that strives to prevent children from entering deeper into the criminal justice process.
The Knowledge of and Attitude to and Beliefs about Causes and Treatments of M...Premier Publishers
Stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness are a common occurrence in the Sub-Saharan region including Eritrea. Numerous studies from Sub-Saharan Africa suggest that stigma and discrimination are major problems in the community, with negative attitudes and behavior towards people with mental illness being widespread. In order to assess the whether such negative attitudes persist in the context of Eritrea this study explored the knowledge and perceptions of 90 Eritrean university students at the College of Business and Economics, the University of Asmara regarding the causes and remedies of mental illness A qualitative method involving coded self-administered questionnaires administered to a sample of 90 university students to collecting data at the end of 2019. The survey evidence points that almost 50% of the respondents had contact with a mentally ill person suggesting that the significant number of the respondents experienced a first-hand encounter and knowledge of mental illness in their family and community. The findings show an overall greater science-based understanding of the causes of mental illness to be followed by recommended psychiatric treatments. The survey evidence indicates that the top three leading causes of mental illness in the context of Eritrea according to the respondents are brain disease (76%), bad events in the life of the mentally ill person (66%) and substance abuse or alcohol taking, smoking, taking drugs like hashish. (54%). The majority of the respondents have a very sympathetic and positive outlook towards mentally ill persons suggesting that mentally illness does not simply affect a chosen individual rather it can happen to anybody regardless of economic class, social status, ethnicity race and religion. Medical interventions cited by the majority of the respondents as being effective treatments for mental illness centered on the idea that hospitals and clinics for treatment and even cures for psychiatric disease. Changing perceptions of mental illnesses in Eritrea that paralleled the very caring and sympathetic attitudes of the sample university students would require raising public awareness regarding mental illness through education, using the mass media to raise public awareness, integrating mental health into the primary health care system, decentralizing mental health care services to increase access to treatment and providing affordable service to maintain positive treatment outcomes.
Effect of Phosphorus and Zinc on the Growth, Nodulation and Yield of Soybean ...Premier Publishers
An investigation was carried out at Kogi State University Student Research and Demonstration farm Anyigba during the 2019 wet season to observe the effect of phosphorus and zinc on the growth, nodulation and yield of soybean. The treatments comprised three levels: phosphorus and zinc (0, 30 and 60 kg P2O5/ha; 0, 5 and 10kg Zn/ha) and two varieties TGX 536 – 02D and Samsoy 2. The investigation revealed that application of phosphorus affected growth, nodulation, yield and some yield components of soybean while zinc application, apart from the plant height, which is reduced significantly, had no significant effect on other growth characters, nodulation, yield and yield components. However, it was generally found to decrease most of the characters. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest growth and yield, while 30 kg P2O5/ha gave the highest nodulation. Application of 60 kg P2O5/ha significantly increased yield to 1.9t/ha, which was significantly higher over the control plots, which gave 1.7t/ha. Crude protein and oil contents of the seeds were not significantly affected by phosphorus application but were significantly affected by zinc application, which significantly decreased protein content as its amount an increase from 0 to 10 kg/ha, and significantly increased oil content from 0 to 5kg/ha and decreased it below 5kg/ha. It was also revealed that the two varieties responded similarly to phosphorus and zinc in terms of growth, grain yield and crude protein content of the seeds.
Influence of Harvest Stage on Yield and Yield Components of Orange Fleshed Sw...Premier Publishers
A field experiment was conducted at Adami Tullu Agricultural Research Center in 2018 under rainfed condition with supplementary irrigation to determine the influence of harvest stage on vine yield and tuberous root yield of orange fleshed sweet potato varieties. The experiment consisted of four harvest stages (105, 120, 135 and 150 days after planting) and Kulfo, Tulla and Guntute varieties. A 4 X 3 factorial experiment arranged in randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Interaction of harvest stage and variety significantly influenced above ground fresh biomass, vine length, marketable tuberous root weight per hectare, commercial harvest index and harvest index. The highest mean values of above ground fresh biomass (66.12 t/ha) and marketable tuberous root weight (56.39 t/ha) were produced by Guntute variety harvested at 135 days after planting. Based on the results, it can be recommended that, farmers of the study area can grow Guntute variety by harvesting at 135 days after planting to obtain optimum vine and tuberous root yields.
Performance evaluation of upland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and variability study...Premier Publishers
This study aimed at assessing genetic variability and to evaluate the performance of 13 improved upland rice varieties for yield and its components based on morphological traits. The field experiment was conducted using a randomized block design at Guraferda and Gimbo districts in the 2019 main cropping season. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) over the two locations revealed significant differences (p≤ 0.05) among varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, panicle length, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield. Similarly, the ANOVA for variety by location interactions depicted significant differences among the tested varieties for days to 50% heading, days to 85% maturity, and thousand-grain weight. High heritability was obtained from days to heading (88.5%), panicle length (85.0%), and grain yield (85.2%), which indicates these traits can be easily improved through selection. High to medium broad sense heritability and genetic advance as percentage of the mean for days to heading, thousand-grain weight, and grain yield indicates a good opportunity for improvement through selection using their phenotypic performance. This is mainly due to the high role of additive gene action in the expression of such traits. This study confirmed the presence of variability among varieties for most of the studied traits, which will create an opportunity for breeders to improve rice yield and other attributes.
Response of Hot Pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to Deficit Irrigation in Bennatse...Premier Publishers
This study was conducted at Enchete kebele in Benna-Tsemay Woreda, South Omo Zone to evaluate the response of hot pepper to deficit irrigation on yield and water productivity under furrow irrigation system. The experiment comprised four treatments (100 % of ETc, 85% of ETc, 70 % of ETc and 50% of ETc), respectively. The experiment was laid out in RCBD and replicated four times. The two years combined yield results indicated that, the maximum total yield (20.38 t/ha) was obtained from 100% ETc while minimum yield (12.92 t/ha) was obtained from 50% of ETc deficit irrigation level. The highest WUE 5.22 kg/ha mm-1 was obtained from 50% of ETc. Treatment of 100% ETc irrigation application had highest benefit cost ratio (4.5) than all others treatments. Applying 50% of ETc reduce the yield by 37% when compared to 100 % ETc. Accordingly, to achieve maximum hot pepper yield in areas where water is not scarce, applying 100% ETc irrigation water application level throughout whole growing season under furrow irrigation system is recommended. But, in the study area water scarcity is the major limiting factor for crop production. So, it is possible to get better yield and water productivity of hot pepper when we apply 85% ETc irrigation water throughout growing season under furrow irrigation system.
Harnessing the Power of Agricultural Waste: A Study of Sabo Market, Ikorodu, ...Premier Publishers
Nigeria is still burdened with huge responsibilities of waste disposal because the potential for benefits of proper waste management is yet to be harnessed. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. It is estimated that about 998 million tons of agricultural waste is produced yearly in the country with organic wastes amounting to 80 percent of the total solid wastes. This can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes. The paper evaluates the capacity of the Sabo Cattle market in producing the required quantities of waste from animal dung alongside decomposed fruits with a view to generating renewable energy possibilities for lighting, security and other business activities of the market. The Sabo market was treated as a study case with the adoption of in-depth examinations of the facility, animals and products for sale and waste generated. A combination of experimental, interviews (qualitative) and design simulation (for final phase) was adopted to extract, verify and analyse the data generated from the study. Animal waste samples were subjected to compositional and fibre analysis with results showing that the sample has high potency for biogas production. Biodegradable Wastes are human and animal excreta, agricultural and all degradable wastes. Availability of high quantity of waste generated being organic in Sabo market allows the use of anaerobic digestion to be proposed as a waste to energy technology due to its feasibility for conversion of moist biodegradable wastes into biogas. The study found that at peak supply period during the Islamic festivities, a conservative 300tonnes of animal waste is generated during the week which translates to over 800kilowatts of electricity.
Influence of Conferences and Job Rotation on Job Productivity of Library Staf...Premier Publishers
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2. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Essien et al. 191
Figure 1: Map of Cross River State showing the Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, (inset: Map of Nigeria showing Cross River State
Previous studies show that the Cameroon sector has
received more attention, notably Dumort, 1968; Eben
1984; Eyong 2003; Eyong et al,2013; Eseme et al, 2002;
Hell et al, 2000; Kangkolo, 2002; Ndougsa et al, 2004;
Nouayou 2005; Tabod, 2008, Tokam et al, 2010; Njoh et
al 2015; Bassey et al 2013, Abolo 2008; Ajonina, 2016
while the Nigerian sector has attracted relatively few
studies like those of Olade 1975, Fairhead and Okereke
1987, 1988, Fairhead et al. 1991; Petters et al,1987;
Reyment 1965, Bassey 2012; Oden 2012; Bassey et al
2013; Obi et al 2013; Oden et al, 2015 which lead to
paucity of geological information. Studies involving facies
analysis and stratigraphic subdivision of sedimentary
basin are commonly carried out to subdivide the basin infill
to connote their age relationship and depositional
environment. When this is established, further studies on
such platform may yield success into associated economic
potentials of the basin. For the Ikom-Mamfe embayment,
only few biostratigraphic studies and been carried out and
these studies where available are centred on outcrop
exposures and few road cuts.
In spite of these studies, not so much centred on the
sedimentological and stratigraphic framework/
development of the embayment. This has informed the
need for this research paper, essentially to investigate the
lithofacies and assess the petroleum potentials of parts of
the embayment. To achieve this goal, detailed geological
mapping was carried out to document the various
geological features (rock types, lithology, grain size
distribution/facies trend, sedimentary structures, etc.), also
geochemical analysis of the mud rock facies within the
study area to assess their petroleum potential.
3. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 192
Geology of the study area
The Mamfe Basin is regarded is a side rift/half graben on
the eastern flank of the Southern Benue Trough, Nigeria.
It is bordered to the north by the Bamenda Massif and to
the south by the Oban Massif. It extends into the south-
western part of the Republic Cameroon to the east where
it is bordered by uplift of the Cameroon Volcanic Line
(CVL). Based on some of its notable structural styles, for
example, its fold axis parallel to basin axis and attendant
magmatic intrusions, it is regarded as being similar to
those of the Benue Trough and suggests that both basins
have a closely related tectonic framework and geodynamic
evolution (Ajonina et al., 2001). Thus, the basin is
generally regarded as one of the three sub basins that
make up the Southern Benue Trough. These sub basins
from east to west are Mamfe, Abakaliki, and Anambra
Basins.
The age of the Mamfe basin has been a subject of debate
since studies begun within the basin largely due to paucity
of biostratigraphic controls and complete lack/insufficiency
of exploratory well in the basin. However, judging from the
sedimentary fills of the WCARS which range in age from
Neocomian to Recent and consists mostly of siliciclastics
and volcaniclastics sediments of predominantly
Cretaceous age, deposited in fluvial, lacustrine, marine,
and deltaic settings. Ajonina (2016) proposed a
Neocomian age for the basin (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Stratigraphic modification chart of the Ikom-Mamfe Embayment (Modified from Petters and Ekweozor 1982,
Petters et al 1987, Bassey et al 2013 and Ajonina 2016).
Reyment (1965) described the Mamfe Formation as thickly
folded and faulted series of massive arkosic sandstones
and grits having intercalations of marlstones, arenaceous
limestones and shale. He erected the type section at the
bank of the Cross River near Mamfe Town, Cameroon
Republic. The lithostratigraphic subdivision of the Mamfe
embayment is composed of sediments that range in age
from Aptian – Albian with thickness of about 4000m
(Petters et al, 1987), collectively referred to as Mamfe
Formation (Reyment, 1965; Dumort, 1968; Whiteman,
1982). The sedimentary package lies unconformably on
the Pan-African crystalline basement complex composed
predominantly of gneisses, schists and granitoids.
The formation is dominantly made up of sandstone, shale,
mudstone, conglomerate and limestone/marble units
constituting the basal unit of the Asu Rive Group (Petters
et al, 1987). Petters et al, (1987) further described the
Mamfe Formation sediments as coarse grained to pebbly,
finning upward sequence with well-developed cross
bedding and contains plant remains. The mud rocks
alternate with medium grained sandstones in the upper
part of the formation and often the sandstone pinch out in
the grey friable shales. Earlier attempts to subdivide the
sedimentary rocks of the Mamfe Formation, Abolo (2008)
proposed a three-member subdivision: Etuko/Okoyong
Member, Nfaitok Member and Manyu Member. Bassey et
4. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Essien et al. 193
al. (2013), rather preferred a two-member subdivision: the
Manyu and Kesham members respectively. Due to these
plaguing inconsistencies in stratigraphic nomenclature,
Ajonina (2016) suggested an upgrade of the members to
formation status and presented the following: an older
Etuko Formation overlain by Mamfe Group (represented
by Nfiatok, Manyu and Okoyong Formations) and
overlying Ikom-Munaya Formation. However, because
these formations are not fully consistent with the
stratigraphic code for erecting formations, it is best to stick
to the Mamfe Formation until adequate data set and well
controls across the basin is available to constrain proper
subdivision if necessary. The occurrence of brine springs
in the Ikom-Mamfe embayment, suggesting a possible
marine influence during deposition was reported by
Petters et al, 1987 but stated the fluviatile origin of the
formation was overwhelming.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Detailed field mapping was carried out across the study
area using a topographic map (part of UGEP Sheet 314)
as a guide. A total of 15 outcrops were visited and 53
samples collected for laboratory analyses. All the outcrop
and river sections were measured and their lithologic
characteristics were documented. This facilitated the
erection of vertical sedimentary section, taking into
account the colour, grain size, sedimentary structures,
bedding forms/types, bed thicknesses and nature of their
contacts. The lithostratigraphic facies analysis of this study
was carried out from general field observations comprising
description of rock types in the study area, with emphasis
on the texture, colour, bed thickness, grain shape and
sizes, sorting, grain size trends and sedimentary
structures. On the basis of the above, lithologic log
sections were constructed for outcrops from different
locations (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Map of the study area showing the various lithologic sections
Miall (1978) facies model was instrumental in the erection
of the facies succession for the study area (Table 1). The
comparison was based on similar lithologic characteristics
and the information obtained, was put together to interpret
the depositional environment of the study area.
Rock samples were collected at representative units for
further laboratory characterization/analyses, especially the
mudrocks (shale and mudstones). These were described
and subjected to geochemical analysis (Total Organic
Carbon – TOC, Soluble Organic Matter - SOM and Rock
Eval Pyrolysis) to evaluate the organic richness, maturity
and hydrocarbon generative potentials.
A total of 15 shale samples were subjected to TOC
analysis using the Walkley-Black titration method. This
involved the protocol referred to as “wet oxidation method”
where by 0.5g of the sample is pulverized and subjected
to chronic oxidation. After heating, excess potassium
dichromate (K2Cr207) was titrated against ferrous
ammonium sulphate. The difference between the initial
and residual potassium dichromate is a measure of the
organic content of the sample. This is calculated using the
relation:
%TOC = 10 * (1 – T/S) F
5. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 194
Table 1: Facies and characteristic structure of sediments and depositional environment (After Miall, 1978)
Gmm Matrix - supported, massive
gravel
Weak grading Plastic debris flow (high-strength, viscous)
Gmg Matrix - supported gravel Inverse to normal grading Pseudoplastic debris flow (low strength,
viscous)
Gci Clast - supported gravel Inverse grading Clast - rich debris flow (high strength), or
pseudoplastic debris flow (low strength)
Gcm Clast - supported massive
gravel
- Pseudoplastic debris flow (inertial bedload,
turbulent flow)
Gh Clast - supported, crudely
bedded gravel
Horizontal bedding,
imbrication
Longitudinal bedforms, lag deposit, sieve
deposits
Gt Gravel, stratified Trough cross beds Minor channel fills
Gp Gravel, stratified Planar cross beds Traverse bedforms, deltaic growths from older
bar remnants
St Sand, fine to very coarse,
maybe pebbly
Solitary or grouped, trough
cross-beds
Sinuous-crested and linguoid (3-D) dunes
Sp Sand, fine to very coarse,
maybe pebbly
Solitary or grouped, planar
cross-beds
Traverse and linguoid bedforms (2-D dunes)
Sr Sand, very fine to coarse Ripple cross-lamination Ripples (lower flow regime)
Sh Sand, very fine to coarse, may
be pebbly
Horizontal lamination, parting
or streaming lineation
Plane-bed flow (critical flow)
Sl Sand, very fine to coarse, may
be pebbly
low angle (15) cross-beds Scour fills, humpback or washed-out dunes,
antidunes
Ss Sand, fine to very coarse, may
be pebbly
Broad, shallow scours Scour fills
Sm Sand, fine to coarse massive, or faint lamination Sediment-gravity flow deposits
Fl Sand, silt, mud Fine lamination, very small
ripples
Overbank, abandoned channel, or waning
flood deposits
Fsm Silt, mud Massive Backswamp or abandoned channel deposits
Fm Mud, silt Massive, desiccation cracks Overbank, abandoned channel, or drape
deposits
Fr Mud, silt Massive, roots, bioturbation Root bed, incipient soil
C Coal, carbonaceous mud Plant, mud films Vegetated swamp deposits
P Paleosol carbonate (calcite,
siderite)
Pedogenic features: nodules,
filaments
Soil with chemical precipitation
where: %TOC = Percentage Total Organic Carbon
T = Sample Titration (Vol of ferrous ammonium sulphate
us for titration)
S = Standard or Blank titration
F = Factor derived from the relation
= {[1.0 x 12] / 4000 x 1.72 x 100/w}
And w = weight of the samples in grams;
1.0N = Normality of K2Cr207; 10 = Vol of K2Cr207
The final results were compared with the chart of Peters,
1986. Soluble organic matter was determined for the
shales using axiotrophic mixture of acetone and methanol
(ratio 9:1). Refluxing technique whereby the solvent is
made to be in prolonged contact with the sample such that
a complete extraction is established. The setup was left to
stand for 24 hours. After complete extraction, the weight of
the extract was determined and use to calculate the SOM
as shown below:
SOM = weight of extract/weight of sample x 1000000.
Using the data generated from the TOC and SOM
analysis, 8 samples were selected and subjected to Rock
Eval pyrolysis (Figure 4). This analysis was carried out at
Weatherford Laboratories, Texas, USA.
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of Rock-Eval pyrolysis
process (adapted from Okon, 2011)
6. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Essien et al. 195
RESULTS
Lithostratigraphic Facies Analysis
The observations made in the field with emphasis on the
variations in colour, rock types, texture, bed thicknesses,
grain shape and sizes, sorting and sedimentary structures
formed the basis for the lithofacies inference which
facilitated the identification of the various depositional
environments. Comparing the lithofacies based on similar
characteristics with that of Miall (1978), seven (7)
lithofacies were identified as follows: conglomerate facies
(Gmm), massive pebbly sandstone facies (Sm), trough
cross-bedded sandstone facies (St), planar cross-bedded
sandstone facies (Sp), fine to coarse grain sandstone
facies (Sh) and mudstone/shale facies (Fl).
The codes used here were drawn from their similarities to
the Miall (1978) facies characterization.
Conglomerate Facies (Gmm)
This consist of brown, poorly sorted matrix supported
polymictic conglomerate exposed around Obubra
constitute conglomerate facies. It is analogous to the Miall
(1978) facies code Gmm interpreted as plastic debris flow
deposit. Its boulder to pebble sized quartz clasts are
thought to be products from redeposition (second cycle
sedimentation) into the part of Southern Benue Trough
(Afikpo/Mamfe Basin) resulting from the uplifted Abakaliki
Anticlinorium following the Santonian event.
Several cycles of deposition were mapped and the
average thickness of each bed was approximately 1.2m
(Figure 5). The overall thickness of this unit is
approximately 10m thick in exposed sections. This facies
succession was not observed in all sections studied but
notably occur overlying the black shale facies, where
observed.
Figure 5:. Vertical section of the polymict conglomerate
Massive pebbly sandstone facies (Sm)
The pebbly sandstone facies consist of a light grey to white
coloured arkosic sandstone observed almost throughout
the study area. It occurs at the basal section of the
sediment pile and generally lack well defined satisfaction.
This lack of clearly defined stratification has been
attributed to the absence of traction transport, whereby
sediments were subjected to rapid deposition. The
characteristics suggest is dumped very rapidly without
subsequent reworking to form a homogenous mass. A
crude fining – upward succession was however observed
based on sediment grain size, in the upper part but capped
with a thin conglomerate layer (lag deposit) and scour
under surface before the beginning of another cycle. The
massive pebbly sandstone faces (facies A) of the study is
similar to Miall’s (1978) facies (Sm) which is interpreted as
sediment gravity flow, with occasional lag and scour
surfaces.
Trough cross bedded sandstone facies (St)
The trough cross bedded sandstone facies is
characterized by dark-grey to brown, medium to coarse
grain sandstone (Facies B). The cross beds are stacked
on top of each other, resulting in multi-story pattern of
cosets. This is comparable with Miall (1978) facies code
(St) interpreted as sinuous-crested and linguoid dune
sands in channel deposit. The characteristic suggests it
resulted from a unidirectional traction current migration of
sinuous crested (ripple marked) sands (Cant and Walker,
1976, Allen, 1970).
The planer cross bedded sandstone facies in the study
area is reddish, brown to light brown in colour, medium to
coarse grain (Facies C), generally exhibit a finning –
upward succession (Figure 6). The facies are similar to
facies code (Sp) of Miall, 1978. Such characteristics are
typical of transverse and linguoid bedforms in braided
stream sub-environments.
Figure 6: Planer cross bedded sandstone facies (SP)
7. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 196
Table 2: Result of the rock eval pyrolysis of Mamfe Formation sediments
S/N Sample
No.
Sample
Type
Location Formation TOC
wt%
SOM
(ppm)
S1 S2 S3 S1+S2 Tmax HI OI S2/S3
1 IHR22A Outcrop Ihurumektet Mamfe Fm 0.05 300
2 IHR 22B Outcrop Ihurumektet Mamfe Fm 0.41 200
3 IHR 22C Outcrop Ihurumektet Mamfe Fm 0.52 200
4 IHR22D Outcrop Ihurumektet Mamfe Fm 0.16 1000 0.03 1.05 0.04 1.08 541 656 25 26.3
5 IHR22E Outcrop Ihurumektet Mamfe Fm 0.57 300
6 IY23A Outcrop Iyametet Mamfe Fm 0.77 300
7 IY23B Outcrop Iyametet Mamfe Fm 0.52 1000 0.01 0.01 0.22 0.02 327 1.92 42.3 0.0
8 IY23C Outcrop Iyametet Mamfe Fm 0.06 1000
9 OH 1A Outcrop Ohana Mamfe Fm 0.41 200
10 OH 2 Outcrop Ohana Mamfe Fm 0.21 200 0.01 0.02 0.13 0.03 386 9.52 61.90 0.2
11 OCH 7 Outcrop Ochon Mamfe Fm 0.36 300 0.01 0.01 0.12 0.02 -1 2.78 33.33 0.1
12 ND 13A Outcrop Nde Mamfe Fm 0.91 1000 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.02 376 1.09 4.39 0.3
13 OKHI5B Outcrop Okagha Mamfe Fm 1.87 6000 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 -1 0.53 0.53 1.0
14 AJ21_A Outcrop Ajasor Mamfe Fm 4.13 1000 0.01 0.01 0.06 0.02 -1 0.24 1.45 0.2
15 IK 17B Outcrop Ikom Mamfe Fm 0.61 2000 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.03 405 1.64 11.48 0.1
Fine - coarse grained sands (sh)
The fine - medium and medium - coarse grained
sandstone facies of this study occurs as mainly brown to
occasionally light-brown in colour (Facies D), exhibiting a
finning - upward trend. the fine – coarse grained sandstone
facies can be compared to the facies code (sh) of Miall
(1978). It is characterized by plane bed condition as they
transit from one grain size to another with occasional crude
laminations defined mostly by colour variations is
interpreted as channel sands facies.
Mudstone - shale facies (FI)
The mudstone-shale facies (E and F) of the studying area
is dark to grey in colour (Figure 7). Individual occurrence
of these facies is up to 0.5m thick and is occasionally
sandy (fine size). This is analogous to facies code (FI) of
Miall (1978). In all the locations that the mudstone-shale
facies occur, it appears gradational and non-erosional with
facies (A) and facies (D). Its texture (silt-clay size grains)
suggests accumulation under suspension and this points
to abandoned, waning flood-phase deposits.
Figure 7: Typical highly fissile shale facies
Organic Geochemistry
The results of Total Organic Carbon, TOC, Soluble
Organic Matter, SOM, and Rock - Eval pyrolysis from the
study area are presented in Table 2. The results show that
values for TOC range from 0.05 - 4.13wt% with a mean
value of 0.07wt%. The minimum threshold value of 0.5wt%
established for clastic sedimentary rocks, wherewith they
may generate hydrocarbon (Tissot and Welte, 1984) and
source quantitative scale of Peters (1986) was adopted in
this study. Using this as a basis for classification, the
source rocks range from poor source rock through fair
source rock to very good source rock potential (Table 2).
Samples collected especially from Okagha and Ajasor
have good and very good source potentials respectively.
Soluble organic matter in rocks are also used to
characterized the organic matter quantity Phillipi (1965),
prepared a cut off scale for charactering source rocks
(Table 3), and using the scale, some of the values indicate
fair to very good concentration of soluble organic matter
(SOM) in the samples. Organic richness alone may not be
sufficient for assessing the petroleum generation potential
of any given source rock. Temperature plays an important
role for the source to attain maturity. In this study, the
type/quality of organic source rock and the maturation
status of the potential source rock was based on the
hydrogen Index (HI), Oxygen Index (OI) and Tmax
obtained from the rock – eval pyrolysis respectively.
The rock-eval analysis data allows the derivative of HI
which is roughly the equivalent of H/C and OI that is also
roughly the equivalent of the O/C (Espitalie et al, 1977,
Peters, 1986). The HI and OI data are commonly plotted
on a modified Van Krevelen diagram (Tissot and Welte,
1984) which clearly demarcates Type 1 – 1V Kerogen).
8. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Essien et al. 197
Table 3: Soluble Organic Matter Interpretation for source
rock potential (after Phillipi, 1965)
SOM (ppm) Description of Source Potential
50
150
500
1500
5000
>5000
Very Poor
Poor
Fair
Good
Very Good
Excellent
DISCUSSIONS
Facies and facies sequence (depositional
environments interpretation)
The study of the distribution and characteristics of
sedimentary facies present aid in the identification of
certain unique characteristics present in modern
depositional settings, which when extended to their
ancient counterpart facilitates interpretation of depositional
environment (Middleton, 1978, Quasim et al., 2017). Two
facies associations were observed namely: A-B-C and E-
F (Figure 8) within the study area. Notably, each of the
association depict well defined erosional base
characterized by scour surface and succession that
generally fines upward. The significance of scour surface
forming the base of individual sedimentation units is
logically starting point for reconstructing the history of
sedimentation (Visher, 1972).
Essentially, within this study area, the facies succession
starts with the massive pebbly sandstone facies (A) at the
base, followed by trough and planner cross bedded
sandstone facies (B) and (C), medium to coarse grained
sandstone facies (D), shale/mudstone facies (E and F),
and finally the massive conglomeritic sandstone facies
(G). From the lithofacies model (Figure 8) the Mamfe
Formation has a finning upward succession typical of
fluviatile origin. Visher (1972) suggested that the
characteristics produced by uni-directional flow must be
present before a fluvial interpretation can be considered
and it was observed in the medium - grained trough/planar
cross bedded sandstone facies (B and C). A very important
aspect to note is the 5.5m thick deposit of polymict
conglomerates with size varying from granules through
cobbles and boulders near Obubra (Loc 6) and was
interpreted to be of alluvial origin. Ascribing alluvial origin
to the deposit is based on the thickness of the deposit
which is regarded as debris flow deposit. The facies (G) in
combination with the braided stream gives an overall
alluvial-braided stream fluvial depositional system for the
study area. Facies (D) is interpreted as active channel
deposit while facies (E and F) mudstone/shale facies are
typical overbank deposits.
The massive conglomerate (G) and fissile shales are
believed to been deposited unconformably on the Asu
River Group sediments in the Ikom-Mamfe Embayment
following the Santonian deformational episode and uplift of
the Abakaliki Anticlinorium (Southern Benue Trough)
giving rise to sediments in their second cycle of deposition
(Figure 8).
Based on the observed characteristics, with the Miall
(1978) model as a guide, the Mamfe Formation is likened
to the Donjek type of braided river depositional profile
because the sedimentation cycles are marked by definite
boundaries with thin conglomerate layer and scour
surfaces with a general finning – upward successions. This
facies succession is comparable with sediments of the
Lower Member of the Guanajuato Conglomerate (Puy-
Alquiza et al 2017) interpreted to have been deposited in
alluvial fans setting associated with braided fluvial system.
For hydrocarbon accumulations to be substantial in the
Ikom-Mamfe basin, the understanding of the environment
of deposition vis-a viz the migration dynamics need to be
understood correctly. Facies analysis point to fluvial
setting for the sedimentary pile, however there is evidence
of some marine incursion at some point and the post
depositional tectonics of the basin have produced
structure that lends positive support to the potential
presence of hydrocarbon in the basin. Although the
quantity of organic matter from this study reflect lean
organic matter, there are sporadic increases in organic
matter from place to place (especially around Okagha and
Ajasor). The plot of Hydrogen Index (HI) against Oxygen
Index (OI) show that all samples, but one sample (IHR
22D) plotted in the Type III-IV kerogen field (Figure 9),
suggesting sources of organic matter from a fluvial
environment. Although reports of lacustrine sediments
exist in the literature (Njoh et al.,2015; Abolo, 2008) in the
Cameroon sector of the Mamfe basin, that may have been
responsible for the characteristics of the sediment that
plotted in the Type II field.
9. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 198
Figure 8. Correlation Panel for the lithologic sections from west to east of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment in the study area..
10. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Essien et al. 199
Figure 9: Plot of Hydrogen index (HI) vs Oxygen (OI)
(After Tissot and Welte,1984)
It is important to note that since samples from this study
were collected mainly from outcrops, there is a possibility
of occurrence of lacustrine sediments which maybe deeply
buried and inaccessible, more so, the outcrop samples
may have been subjected to some degree of weathering,
even though deliberate efforts were made in the field to
collect the most unaltered samples.
Hydrocarbon Source Potential (SP)
The hydrocarbon source potential (SP) of the samples
range from 0.02 - 1.08mg HC/grock with an average value
of 0.16mg HC/grock (Table 2). From the criteria used by
Tissot and Welte, (1984) and Dymann et al (1996), the
samples fall below the pre-requisite for hydrocarbon oil
source rocks. Therefore, the yield potential of the present
in the rock suggest little or no oil source potential.
To further buttress this, a bivariate cross plot of S2 against
TOC, this plot showed that the kerogen has lean organic
matter character except one sample that plotted in the oil
prone field (Figure 10). Further assessment based on
thermal maturity using pyrolysis method (Tmax) show a
range from 327 to 541°C. This implies that the sediments
are thermally immature (Peter and Cassa,1984; Dow
1977; Peter, 1986), except one sample (IHR 22D) which
attained a Tmax value of 541°C and falls above 470°C,
indicating that the kerogen has reached the post mature
stage. It is also very important to point out the occurrence
of intrusives in close proximity to samples used in this
study, and this could have influenced the high Tmax value.
Figure 10: Plot of S2 vs TOC of samples from the study
area (after Tissot and Welte,1984)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
The facies analysis and petroleum generative potential of
parts of Ikom-Mamfe embayment were investigated with
the purpose of carrying out paleo-environmental
reconstruction and assessment of the petroleum potential.
The study strongly points to the fact that the sediments
were deposited in a fluvial depositional environment. The
lithofacies generated facilitated paleo-environmental
inference. The various facies encountered range from
conglomerate / massive pebbly sandstone, trough/planar
cross bedded sandstone, fine-medium grained sandstone
and mudstone/shale facies, all showing unidirectional flow
characteristics and exhibiting essentially fining upward
succession. This is typical of sediments belonging to
alluvial-braided fluvial depositional system.
Also, evaluation of the kerogen for hydrocarbon source
potential revealed that the TOC and SOM were poor to
good. The organic matter was mostly derived from
different sources including continental and possibly
lacustrine environments. The thermal history of the
analysed samples seems not to have supported
hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin. This position can
be further strengthened when subsurface samples from
deep wells are made available for study in this basin.
As a concluding remark, it is important to note that outcrop
samples alone were used for this study, and may not, on
their own, be adequate to provide a deep insight on a
detailed stratigraphic sequence and petroleum generating
potential of the basin. It is recommended that where
possible, a drilling campaign where drill core samples or
even ditch cuttings could be analysed for the entire vertical
section of the basin (from its shallowest parts to the
deepest parts) is carried out. This would go a long way to
adequately constrain the age, depositional history and
much more reliably access the petroleum source
potentials.
11. Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embayment, South-Eastern Nigeria
Int. J. Geol. Min. 200
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I will like to express my profound gratitude to the
anonymous reviewers whose critical review comments
have greatly improved the quality of this manuscript.
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