ABSTRACT: Rocks underlying the northeastern sector of Obudu area forms part of the Bamenda massif which is a westward extension of the Precambrian terrains of Cameroon into southeastern Nigeria. These rocks are frequently found in the basement complex of Nigeria and include the migmatitic gneiss as the early metamorphic tectonites constituting over 60% of the outcropping rocks in the study area. The basement rock of the study area comprised of the migmatite gneiss and biotite-hornblende garnetiferous gneiss as well as the porphyroblastic gneiss and granite gneiss which formed the basement intruded by the Older granites (Pan-African granitoids). The Older granites in this area include charnockite, porphyritic granite, medium grained granite, diorite and pegmatite/aplite with relatively undeformed veins of dolerite and quartz. The presence of garnet nodules in the biotite-hornblende gneiss indicates high grade tectono-thermal metamorphism of a possible sedimentary protholith. The shearing observed in some rock outcrops are indication that there have been a series of structural deformation alongside magmatism and metamorphism in the area.
The geologic investigations of rocks around Angwan Madaki and its environs, N...Premier Publishers
The studied area lies within Latitude 8⁰41'40''N and 8⁰52'40''N and Longitude 8⁰41'10''E and 8⁰45'10''E within the North Central Nigerian Precambrian Basement Complex. It is bordered by Angwan Mission in the North, Konva in the West, River Arikiya in the South and Farin Ruwa in the south East. The rock types include the Precambrian gneisses; granite and porphyroblastic gneiss, banded gneiss and migmatites with characteristic pegmatites and vein intrusions. These rocks experienced various tectonic episodes which resulted to their different structural styles such as mineral lineation, foliation, jointing, veins, faults, dykes and minor folds. The geological mapping of the area reveals five (5) dominant lithologic units namely; migmatites, banded gneiss, granite and porphyroblastic gneiss, older granites and dolerite respectively. Systematic structural mapping of the area also confirmed the preponderance of different folds such as crenulation fold and ptygmatitic fold. Other structures such as dykes, joints, quartz-veins, fractures and micro-faults were detected on the rocks. The overall result showed that the studied area is a manifestation of Pan African deformation as revealed by the magnitude and style of the folding and other structural features of rocks in the area. Petrographic studies also reveal the mineral assemblages and structural features that were key in identifying these rock types.
Petrographic evaluation of rocks around Arikya and its environs, North Centra...Premier Publishers
The study area covers Arikiya and parts of Wayopini in Lafia Local Government Area of Nassarawa State, situated in central Nigeria. This falls within the Basement Complex of central Nigeria that forms part of the Upper Proterozoic mobile belt extending from Algeria across the Sahara into Nigeria, Benin and the Cameroon. The area consists of gneisses, granite gneisses, migmatites and Porphyroblastic gneiss. Dolerite dyke and Pegmatite form intrusions into the host rocks. The major rock forming minerals are plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz and biotite. The major structures includes joints, foliations, quartz vein, fold and fault, Predominant structural trends include the NE-SW and NW-SE with minor E-W and N-S structural trends which are in agreement with the general trend of structures in the Basement Complex. Mineral resource potential of the study area include feldspar and mica from the gneiss and pegmatites as well as alluvial garnets, columbites, tantalite, and cassiterite (derived from the pegmatites) as evidenced from mining activities along river channels in the entire area.
Tectonic Processes and Metallogeny along the Tethyan Mountain Ranges of the M...MYO AUNG Myanmar
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309130798_Tectonic_Processes_and_Metallogeny_along_the_Tethyan_Mountain_Ranges_of_the_Middle_East_and_South_Asia_Oman_Himalaya_Karakoram_Tibet_Myanmar_Thailand_Malaysia
The genesis of mineral deposits has been widely linked to speci c tectonic settings, but has less frequently been linked to tectonic processes. Understanding processes of oceanic and continental collision tectonics is crucial to understanding key factors leading to the genesis of magmatic-, metamorphic-, hydrothermal-, and sedimentary-related mineral deposits. Geologic studies of most ore deposits typically focus on the nal stages of concentration and emplacement. The ultimate source (mantle, lower crust, upper crust) of mineral deposits in many cases remains more cryptic. Uniquely, along the Tethyan collision zones of Asia, every stage of the conver- gence process can be studied from the initial oceanic settings where ophiolite complexes were formed, through subduction zone and island-arc settings with ultrahigh- to high-pressure metamorphism, to the continental col- lision settings of the Himalaya, and advanced, long-lived collisional settings such as Afghanistan, the Karakoram Ranges, and the Tibetan plateau. The India-Asia collision closed the intervening Neotethys ocean at ~50 Ma and resulted in the formation of the Himalayan mountain ranges, and increased crustal thickening, metamor- phism, deformation, and uplift of the Karakoram-Hindu Kush ranges, Tibetan plateau, and older collision zones across central Asia. Metallogenesis in oceanic crust (hydrothermal Cu-Au; Fe, Mn nodules) and mantle (Cr, Ni, Pt) can be deduced from ophiolite complexes preserved around the Arabia/India-Asia collision (Oman, Ladakh, South Tibet, Myanmar, Andaman Islands). Tectonic-metallogenic processes in island arcs and ancient subduc- tion complexes (VMS Cu-Zn-Pb) can be deduced from studies in the Dras-Kohistan arc (Pakistan) and the various arc complexes along the Myanmar-Andaman segment of the collision zone. Metallogenesis of Andean- type margins (Cu-Au-Mo porphyry; epithermal Au-Ag) can be seen along the Jurassic-Eocene Transhimalayan ranges of Pakistan, Ladakh, South Tibet, and Myanmar. Large porphyry Cu deposits in Tibet are related to both precollisional calc-alkaline granites and postcollisional alkaline adakite-like intrusions. Metallogenesis of continent-continent collision zones is prominent along the Myanmar-Thailand-Malaysia Sn-W granite belts, but less common along the Himalaya. The Mogok metamorphic belt of Myanmar is known for its gemstones associated with regional high-temperature metamorphism (ruby, spinel, sapphire, etc). In Myanmar it is likely that extensive alkaline magmatism has contributed extra heat during the formation of high-temperature meta- morphism. This paper attempts to link metallogeny of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet and Myanmar collision zone to tectonic processes derived from multidisciplinary geologic studies.
Tectono-magmatic Development of Accreted West Burma Block from Gondwana Land-...MYO AUNG Myanmar
Western Myanmar, between the strike-slip Sagiang Fault in the east and the frontal thrusts of the Indo-Burman Ranges in the west, was identified by Mitchell (1989) as an allochthonous continental block, now largely overlain by Cenozoic sediments and an active magmatic arc.
Mitchell (1989) named this continental block ‘Mount Victoria Land’ from an occurrence of metamorphic rocks, taken to represent the outcrop of the continental basement. This block has been termed the ‘West Burma Block’ by Hutchison (1989).
The geologic investigations of rocks around Angwan Madaki and its environs, N...Premier Publishers
The studied area lies within Latitude 8⁰41'40''N and 8⁰52'40''N and Longitude 8⁰41'10''E and 8⁰45'10''E within the North Central Nigerian Precambrian Basement Complex. It is bordered by Angwan Mission in the North, Konva in the West, River Arikiya in the South and Farin Ruwa in the south East. The rock types include the Precambrian gneisses; granite and porphyroblastic gneiss, banded gneiss and migmatites with characteristic pegmatites and vein intrusions. These rocks experienced various tectonic episodes which resulted to their different structural styles such as mineral lineation, foliation, jointing, veins, faults, dykes and minor folds. The geological mapping of the area reveals five (5) dominant lithologic units namely; migmatites, banded gneiss, granite and porphyroblastic gneiss, older granites and dolerite respectively. Systematic structural mapping of the area also confirmed the preponderance of different folds such as crenulation fold and ptygmatitic fold. Other structures such as dykes, joints, quartz-veins, fractures and micro-faults were detected on the rocks. The overall result showed that the studied area is a manifestation of Pan African deformation as revealed by the magnitude and style of the folding and other structural features of rocks in the area. Petrographic studies also reveal the mineral assemblages and structural features that were key in identifying these rock types.
Petrographic evaluation of rocks around Arikya and its environs, North Centra...Premier Publishers
The study area covers Arikiya and parts of Wayopini in Lafia Local Government Area of Nassarawa State, situated in central Nigeria. This falls within the Basement Complex of central Nigeria that forms part of the Upper Proterozoic mobile belt extending from Algeria across the Sahara into Nigeria, Benin and the Cameroon. The area consists of gneisses, granite gneisses, migmatites and Porphyroblastic gneiss. Dolerite dyke and Pegmatite form intrusions into the host rocks. The major rock forming minerals are plagioclase, orthoclase, quartz and biotite. The major structures includes joints, foliations, quartz vein, fold and fault, Predominant structural trends include the NE-SW and NW-SE with minor E-W and N-S structural trends which are in agreement with the general trend of structures in the Basement Complex. Mineral resource potential of the study area include feldspar and mica from the gneiss and pegmatites as well as alluvial garnets, columbites, tantalite, and cassiterite (derived from the pegmatites) as evidenced from mining activities along river channels in the entire area.
Tectonic Processes and Metallogeny along the Tethyan Mountain Ranges of the M...MYO AUNG Myanmar
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309130798_Tectonic_Processes_and_Metallogeny_along_the_Tethyan_Mountain_Ranges_of_the_Middle_East_and_South_Asia_Oman_Himalaya_Karakoram_Tibet_Myanmar_Thailand_Malaysia
The genesis of mineral deposits has been widely linked to speci c tectonic settings, but has less frequently been linked to tectonic processes. Understanding processes of oceanic and continental collision tectonics is crucial to understanding key factors leading to the genesis of magmatic-, metamorphic-, hydrothermal-, and sedimentary-related mineral deposits. Geologic studies of most ore deposits typically focus on the nal stages of concentration and emplacement. The ultimate source (mantle, lower crust, upper crust) of mineral deposits in many cases remains more cryptic. Uniquely, along the Tethyan collision zones of Asia, every stage of the conver- gence process can be studied from the initial oceanic settings where ophiolite complexes were formed, through subduction zone and island-arc settings with ultrahigh- to high-pressure metamorphism, to the continental col- lision settings of the Himalaya, and advanced, long-lived collisional settings such as Afghanistan, the Karakoram Ranges, and the Tibetan plateau. The India-Asia collision closed the intervening Neotethys ocean at ~50 Ma and resulted in the formation of the Himalayan mountain ranges, and increased crustal thickening, metamor- phism, deformation, and uplift of the Karakoram-Hindu Kush ranges, Tibetan plateau, and older collision zones across central Asia. Metallogenesis in oceanic crust (hydrothermal Cu-Au; Fe, Mn nodules) and mantle (Cr, Ni, Pt) can be deduced from ophiolite complexes preserved around the Arabia/India-Asia collision (Oman, Ladakh, South Tibet, Myanmar, Andaman Islands). Tectonic-metallogenic processes in island arcs and ancient subduc- tion complexes (VMS Cu-Zn-Pb) can be deduced from studies in the Dras-Kohistan arc (Pakistan) and the various arc complexes along the Myanmar-Andaman segment of the collision zone. Metallogenesis of Andean- type margins (Cu-Au-Mo porphyry; epithermal Au-Ag) can be seen along the Jurassic-Eocene Transhimalayan ranges of Pakistan, Ladakh, South Tibet, and Myanmar. Large porphyry Cu deposits in Tibet are related to both precollisional calc-alkaline granites and postcollisional alkaline adakite-like intrusions. Metallogenesis of continent-continent collision zones is prominent along the Myanmar-Thailand-Malaysia Sn-W granite belts, but less common along the Himalaya. The Mogok metamorphic belt of Myanmar is known for its gemstones associated with regional high-temperature metamorphism (ruby, spinel, sapphire, etc). In Myanmar it is likely that extensive alkaline magmatism has contributed extra heat during the formation of high-temperature meta- morphism. This paper attempts to link metallogeny of the Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet and Myanmar collision zone to tectonic processes derived from multidisciplinary geologic studies.
Tectono-magmatic Development of Accreted West Burma Block from Gondwana Land-...MYO AUNG Myanmar
Western Myanmar, between the strike-slip Sagiang Fault in the east and the frontal thrusts of the Indo-Burman Ranges in the west, was identified by Mitchell (1989) as an allochthonous continental block, now largely overlain by Cenozoic sediments and an active magmatic arc.
Mitchell (1989) named this continental block ‘Mount Victoria Land’ from an occurrence of metamorphic rocks, taken to represent the outcrop of the continental basement. This block has been termed the ‘West Burma Block’ by Hutchison (1989).
Geological and Geochemical Characterization of the Neoproterozoic Derudieb Me...Premier Publishers
The meta- volcano - sedimentary sequences in the northern part of the Red Sea Hills comprise a sequence of metamorphosed rocks at low green schist facies of metamorphism consisting of lava flows, tuffs to breccias and agglomerates range in composition from basalts and andesites to rhyolites. Geologically the meta volcano sedimentary sequences is divided into metavolcanic rocks and metasediments. The metavolcanic rocks range in composition from mafic to felsic. The metasediments are represented by banded schist, quartzite and marble. The samples collected for study lie within the field of sub-alkaline rocks except one mafic volcanic sample, which plot near the boundary in the alkaline field and thus follow a transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkaline trend (increasing FeO* relative to MgO). The behavior of the large ion lithophile element (LILE) in the studied metavolcanics confirms the early fractionation of plagioclase. These rocks display negative Nb anomalies, suggesting that the melt source was modified by subduction-related fluids. Tectonically all felsic samples fall in the field of volcanic arc granitoids whereas the mafic units plot firmly within the plate margin field.
Measurement of Pan-African Strain in Zaria Precambrian Granite Batholith, Nor...iosrjce
The Zaria granite batholith in northern Nigeria is an example of syn-tectonic batholith emplaced
about 600 ± 150 Ma, ago during the Pan - African orogeny. Its strain history and strain marker behavior have
been studied in order to further elucidate the tectonics of the Pan- African orogeny. Field observations,
measurements and different methods of strain estimation were applied on 623 data to determine the strain
intensity, direction of maximum elongation (σ3) and compression direction (σ1). The different methods produced
strain values between 2.66 and 2.07, maximum elongation took place in the N - S direction while the σ1
(maximum compression) trajectory was oriented E – W, making the direction the least favourable for strain
marker (phenocryst and xenolith) growth. Strain partitioning revealed that the N - S direction experienced the
highest strain while the NE - SW orientation showed a lower strain value than the NW - SE direction regardless
of the number of markers preferring the directions. Xenoliths, faults and joints lend credence to the measured
strain results. It would seem that the E - W compression during the Pan - African orogeny was widespread and
fairly constant throughout most of the period tracked by the granites.
Petrography, Geochemistry and Age of Volcanic Rocks in the Gurasada Area, Nor...Ikramullah Sultana
This paper proves for the first time the existence of a complex distribution of volcanic rock types occurring in the Gurasada region. At the base of these a bentonite deposit crops out in the Gurasada open pit, followed by pyroclastic deposits represented by pyroclastic breccia and rare tuff levels the youngest rocks are lava flows exposed in the Runcşor Hill. Thermometamorphic products represented by hornfels are described here for the first time within the outcrop area of the pyroclastic breccia. The site observations, petrographic, XRD, RAMAN spectroscopy and chemical analyses indicated the formation of the bentonite deposit by weathering of a vitroclastic tuff, probably of dacitic composition, belonging to a first (more felsic) eruptive stage consisting of Plinian-type explosive volcanism. The pyroclastic breccia, tuffs and lava flows are mainly of calc-alkaline andesitic composition and belong to a second stage of volcanism, which developed intermittently, over a longer period of time. Radiometric dating (K/Ar method) of the rocks indicates the formation of the volcanic-volcaniclastic deposits within a period of 69 to 80 million years ago. These ages confirm that these volcanics belong to the laramic cycle as inferred previously place them at the level of Upper Cretaceous (Senonian).
Grossular bearing jadeite omphacite rock in the myanmar jadeite areaYMCA Mandalay
The Myanmar jadeitite deposits near Hpakant have attracted remarkable attention of geologists and gemologists not only for being the largest jadeite jade deposit in the world, producing high quality jade with the glassy imperial green for more then 300 years.
Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embaymen...Premier Publishers
An integrated study involving detailed lithofacies analysis and source rock evaluation were carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and assess the petroleum potentials of the Ikom–Mamfe embayment, southeastern Nigeria. Sedimentological field mapping involving detailed description of lithologic characteristics and facies characterisation was carried out. Geochemical studies were carried out to determine the quantity of organic matter total organic carbon (TOC), soluble organic matter (SOM), the organic matter quality (organic matter type) and level of maturity. Results show that the dominant vertical succession of the various lithofacies indicate a general finning upward succession with basal massive pebbly sandstone, medium to coarse grained sandstones with intercalation of shale and mudstones. Seven lithofacies A to G, were identified. These include: conglomerates, massive pebbly sandstone, trough cross-bedded sandstone, planar cross-bedded sandstone, shale/mudstone facies. These facies were compared with established standard facies association for determining paleoenvironment of deposition. The facies analysis carried out pointed to fluvial (alluvial – braided) depositional system as the environment of deposition. TOC values range from 0.05 – 4.13 wt% indicating poor to excellent and SOM range from 200 – 6000 ppm indicating also poor to excellent. The amount of pyrolizable carbon derived as S1 and S2 peaks suggested that the source rocks possess organic matter capable of generating hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and oxygen indices (HI and OI) ranged from 0.24 to 656 and 0.53 to 61.90 mg/gTOC respectively. Analyses of the evaluated source rock shows that the hydrocarbon potential of the study area is lean and typically of a reworked terrestrial deposit of fluvial depositional system.
A Study on Rock units for Landslide Hazard between Yinmabin and Kalaw areas, ...ijtsrd
The research area is situated along the Thazi Taunggyi road section and Thazi Shwenyaung railway section in western part of the Shan Plateau. It is one of the most socio economically important transportation routes in Myanmar. Most of the land slide hazards occur annually along the pathways for transportation because of the mountainous terrain area with high steep cutting slopes.The study area involves a sequence of Yinmabin metamorphic complex Early Paleozoic , Lebyin Group Early Carboniferous , Plateau Limestone Group Middle Permian Middle Triassic , Loi an Group late Middle Jurassic early Late Jurassic , Pyinnyaung Formation Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous , Kalaw Red Bed Cretaceous and Alluvium Holocene .The various types of rock units are igneous and meta igneous rock units, metamorphic rock units , sedimentary and meta sedimentary rock units. The igneous rock units are also comprised the granitic rocks, dioritic rocks, rhyolite and biotite microgranite. Metamorphic Rock units of Yinmabin Metamorphic Complex are low to medium grade metamorphosed pelitic rocks, medium to high grade metamorphosed quartzo feldspatic rocks and medium grade metamorphosed calcareous rocks. The Lebyin Group consists of greywackes, pebbly mudstone, quartzite and shales. The Plateau Limestone Group is composed of medium to thick bedded, light gray to bluish gray calcitic limestone, dolomic limestones, brecciated limestone and argillaceous calcitic limestone. The two Jurassic units consists of interbedded sequences of sandstone, siltstone, shale. Generally the rocks of the Loi an Group are turbiditic nature of siliciclastic sedimentary rock units. Kalaw Red Beds are totally of continental origin of fluvialtile fanglomeratic deposits containing comglomerate, thin to medium bedded sandstone, siltstone and shale.Moreover, the study area is structurally unstable because it lies in the Shan Scarp Fault Zone. So, most of the landslide types occur in this area. Wedge Failure and plane failure are the common type of landslides and other types occur as minor. Dr. Me Me Thein "A Study on Rock units for Landslide Hazard between Yinmabin and Kalaw areas, Mandalay Region and Shan State (South)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28041.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/geography/28041/a-study-on-rock-units-for-landslide-hazard-between-yinmabin-and-kalaw-areas-mandalay-region-and-shan-state-south/dr-me-me-thein
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
Myanmar known until recently as Burma, is slowly but steadily starting to attract foreign investment, driven mainly by international resource firms eager to tap into the mineral-rich South East Asia's country. After more than half a century of military ruling, Burma has started benefitting from the recent suspension of sanctions by Canada, the United States and the European Union. Myanmar's gold production is increasing and could prove a key factor for the country's economic growth, but many gold miners are suffering from lung diseases due to inadequate equipment and antiquated practices. In mineral-rich areas of Kachin State, taxes from Burmese and Chinese gold mining provides an important income stream to the Kachin Independence Organization. However, these mining companies use mercury in an environmentally hazardous extraction process, which can lead to long-lasting damage for the area's forests and river ways.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Geological and Geochemical Characterization of the Neoproterozoic Derudieb Me...Premier Publishers
The meta- volcano - sedimentary sequences in the northern part of the Red Sea Hills comprise a sequence of metamorphosed rocks at low green schist facies of metamorphism consisting of lava flows, tuffs to breccias and agglomerates range in composition from basalts and andesites to rhyolites. Geologically the meta volcano sedimentary sequences is divided into metavolcanic rocks and metasediments. The metavolcanic rocks range in composition from mafic to felsic. The metasediments are represented by banded schist, quartzite and marble. The samples collected for study lie within the field of sub-alkaline rocks except one mafic volcanic sample, which plot near the boundary in the alkaline field and thus follow a transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkaline trend (increasing FeO* relative to MgO). The behavior of the large ion lithophile element (LILE) in the studied metavolcanics confirms the early fractionation of plagioclase. These rocks display negative Nb anomalies, suggesting that the melt source was modified by subduction-related fluids. Tectonically all felsic samples fall in the field of volcanic arc granitoids whereas the mafic units plot firmly within the plate margin field.
Measurement of Pan-African Strain in Zaria Precambrian Granite Batholith, Nor...iosrjce
The Zaria granite batholith in northern Nigeria is an example of syn-tectonic batholith emplaced
about 600 ± 150 Ma, ago during the Pan - African orogeny. Its strain history and strain marker behavior have
been studied in order to further elucidate the tectonics of the Pan- African orogeny. Field observations,
measurements and different methods of strain estimation were applied on 623 data to determine the strain
intensity, direction of maximum elongation (σ3) and compression direction (σ1). The different methods produced
strain values between 2.66 and 2.07, maximum elongation took place in the N - S direction while the σ1
(maximum compression) trajectory was oriented E – W, making the direction the least favourable for strain
marker (phenocryst and xenolith) growth. Strain partitioning revealed that the N - S direction experienced the
highest strain while the NE - SW orientation showed a lower strain value than the NW - SE direction regardless
of the number of markers preferring the directions. Xenoliths, faults and joints lend credence to the measured
strain results. It would seem that the E - W compression during the Pan - African orogeny was widespread and
fairly constant throughout most of the period tracked by the granites.
Petrography, Geochemistry and Age of Volcanic Rocks in the Gurasada Area, Nor...Ikramullah Sultana
This paper proves for the first time the existence of a complex distribution of volcanic rock types occurring in the Gurasada region. At the base of these a bentonite deposit crops out in the Gurasada open pit, followed by pyroclastic deposits represented by pyroclastic breccia and rare tuff levels the youngest rocks are lava flows exposed in the Runcşor Hill. Thermometamorphic products represented by hornfels are described here for the first time within the outcrop area of the pyroclastic breccia. The site observations, petrographic, XRD, RAMAN spectroscopy and chemical analyses indicated the formation of the bentonite deposit by weathering of a vitroclastic tuff, probably of dacitic composition, belonging to a first (more felsic) eruptive stage consisting of Plinian-type explosive volcanism. The pyroclastic breccia, tuffs and lava flows are mainly of calc-alkaline andesitic composition and belong to a second stage of volcanism, which developed intermittently, over a longer period of time. Radiometric dating (K/Ar method) of the rocks indicates the formation of the volcanic-volcaniclastic deposits within a period of 69 to 80 million years ago. These ages confirm that these volcanics belong to the laramic cycle as inferred previously place them at the level of Upper Cretaceous (Senonian).
Grossular bearing jadeite omphacite rock in the myanmar jadeite areaYMCA Mandalay
The Myanmar jadeitite deposits near Hpakant have attracted remarkable attention of geologists and gemologists not only for being the largest jadeite jade deposit in the world, producing high quality jade with the glassy imperial green for more then 300 years.
Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embaymen...Premier Publishers
An integrated study involving detailed lithofacies analysis and source rock evaluation were carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and assess the petroleum potentials of the Ikom–Mamfe embayment, southeastern Nigeria. Sedimentological field mapping involving detailed description of lithologic characteristics and facies characterisation was carried out. Geochemical studies were carried out to determine the quantity of organic matter total organic carbon (TOC), soluble organic matter (SOM), the organic matter quality (organic matter type) and level of maturity. Results show that the dominant vertical succession of the various lithofacies indicate a general finning upward succession with basal massive pebbly sandstone, medium to coarse grained sandstones with intercalation of shale and mudstones. Seven lithofacies A to G, were identified. These include: conglomerates, massive pebbly sandstone, trough cross-bedded sandstone, planar cross-bedded sandstone, shale/mudstone facies. These facies were compared with established standard facies association for determining paleoenvironment of deposition. The facies analysis carried out pointed to fluvial (alluvial – braided) depositional system as the environment of deposition. TOC values range from 0.05 – 4.13 wt% indicating poor to excellent and SOM range from 200 – 6000 ppm indicating also poor to excellent. The amount of pyrolizable carbon derived as S1 and S2 peaks suggested that the source rocks possess organic matter capable of generating hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and oxygen indices (HI and OI) ranged from 0.24 to 656 and 0.53 to 61.90 mg/gTOC respectively. Analyses of the evaluated source rock shows that the hydrocarbon potential of the study area is lean and typically of a reworked terrestrial deposit of fluvial depositional system.
A Study on Rock units for Landslide Hazard between Yinmabin and Kalaw areas, ...ijtsrd
The research area is situated along the Thazi Taunggyi road section and Thazi Shwenyaung railway section in western part of the Shan Plateau. It is one of the most socio economically important transportation routes in Myanmar. Most of the land slide hazards occur annually along the pathways for transportation because of the mountainous terrain area with high steep cutting slopes.The study area involves a sequence of Yinmabin metamorphic complex Early Paleozoic , Lebyin Group Early Carboniferous , Plateau Limestone Group Middle Permian Middle Triassic , Loi an Group late Middle Jurassic early Late Jurassic , Pyinnyaung Formation Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous , Kalaw Red Bed Cretaceous and Alluvium Holocene .The various types of rock units are igneous and meta igneous rock units, metamorphic rock units , sedimentary and meta sedimentary rock units. The igneous rock units are also comprised the granitic rocks, dioritic rocks, rhyolite and biotite microgranite. Metamorphic Rock units of Yinmabin Metamorphic Complex are low to medium grade metamorphosed pelitic rocks, medium to high grade metamorphosed quartzo feldspatic rocks and medium grade metamorphosed calcareous rocks. The Lebyin Group consists of greywackes, pebbly mudstone, quartzite and shales. The Plateau Limestone Group is composed of medium to thick bedded, light gray to bluish gray calcitic limestone, dolomic limestones, brecciated limestone and argillaceous calcitic limestone. The two Jurassic units consists of interbedded sequences of sandstone, siltstone, shale. Generally the rocks of the Loi an Group are turbiditic nature of siliciclastic sedimentary rock units. Kalaw Red Beds are totally of continental origin of fluvialtile fanglomeratic deposits containing comglomerate, thin to medium bedded sandstone, siltstone and shale.Moreover, the study area is structurally unstable because it lies in the Shan Scarp Fault Zone. So, most of the landslide types occur in this area. Wedge Failure and plane failure are the common type of landslides and other types occur as minor. Dr. Me Me Thein "A Study on Rock units for Landslide Hazard between Yinmabin and Kalaw areas, Mandalay Region and Shan State (South)" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd28041.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/geography/28041/a-study-on-rock-units-for-landslide-hazard-between-yinmabin-and-kalaw-areas-mandalay-region-and-shan-state-south/dr-me-me-thein
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
Myanmar known until recently as Burma, is slowly but steadily starting to attract foreign investment, driven mainly by international resource firms eager to tap into the mineral-rich South East Asia's country. After more than half a century of military ruling, Burma has started benefitting from the recent suspension of sanctions by Canada, the United States and the European Union. Myanmar's gold production is increasing and could prove a key factor for the country's economic growth, but many gold miners are suffering from lung diseases due to inadequate equipment and antiquated practices. In mineral-rich areas of Kachin State, taxes from Burmese and Chinese gold mining provides an important income stream to the Kachin Independence Organization. However, these mining companies use mercury in an environmentally hazardous extraction process, which can lead to long-lasting damage for the area's forests and river ways.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Sedimentology and Geochemical Evaluation of Campano-Maastrichtian Sediments, ...Premier Publishers
The Cretaceous sediments in the Anambra Basin (SE Nigeria) consist of a cyclic succession of coals, carbonaceous shales, silty shales, siltstones and sandstones interpreted as deltaic deposits. Statistics reveals a graphic mean range from 1.5 to 2.8, sorting range from 0.45 to 1.58, skewness range from -0.58 to 0.32 and kurtosis between 0.38 and 2 for the Ajali Sandstone. From these results, the sandstones in the area are dominated by medium to coarse grains, poorly to moderately sorted, coarse skewed and very platykurtic sediments. Further sedimentological evaluation in six localities indicates fluvial-flood plain-marginally marine facies for the Mamu and Nsukka Formations and marine for the Nkporo and Enugu Shales. The geochemical evaluations show that total organic carbon (TOC) (8.95wt%) of the samples constitutes that of good to excellent source rock with oil, oil/gas, gas prones for kerogen types I, II/III, III indicated by Rock-Eval S2/S3 (9.13). The high oxygen index (OI) (42.61 mgCO2g-1TOC) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. The Tmax (430oC), indicate the immaturity to onset of maturity of these source rocks. Potential reservoir units occur in the fluvial sandstones of the Ajali Formation and in the marginal marine and flood plain sandstones of the Mamu Formation. The shales and claystones of the Nsukka and Imo Formations may provide regional seals.
roperties of Logical Systems:
Logical systems can have properties of consistency, validity, completeness and soundness.
Consistency: this means that no theorem of the system contradicts another.
Validity: this means that the system’s rules of proof will never allow a false inference from true premises.
Completeness: this means that if a theorem is true, it can be proven.
Soundness: which means that the premises are true and the argument is valid
Petrological Characterisitics and Paleodepositional Environment of the Sandst...iosrjce
Petrological characteristics of sandstones outcropping in Bende and Isimkpu areas was carried out
using sieve analysis and pebble morphometric studies in determination of the paleodepositional environment for
Sandstone facies of the Ameki Group. Lithostratigraphic studies show that the area is underlain by sandstones,
calcareous sandstone, shales, mudstones and clays. This has been organized into: Unit A: Idima junction shale;
B: Bende sandstone; C: Onuinyang calcareous siltstone and D: Isimkpu sandstone, from oldest to youngest.
Representative sandstone samples were collected from outcrops widely distributed in the area. Results show that
the sandstones are fine to coarse grained and the pebbles are rounded to sub-rounded and dominantly bladed to
elongate. Computed percentages indicate the sandstones are dominantly well sorted, negatively skewed and
extremely leptokurtic. Mean values for the flatness index, elongation and oblate-prolate index (OPI) are 0.47,
0.70 and 2.37 respectively. The synthesis and integration of these values indicated fluviatile with subordinate
littoral/shallow marine setting for sandstones of Ameki Formation in the study area.
Base Metal Mineralization in the Precambrian Rocks of Okemesi-Ijero Area, So...Scientific Review SR
The evaluation of base metals in the bedrocks of Okemesi / Ijero area, southwestern Nigeria has
been carried out to assess their potentials, level of accumulation and enrichment. The methodology included
systematic geological and geochemical mapping of the rocks using grid-controlled sampling method at a
sampling density of one sample per 500m. Ten rock samples were collected at different locations of the study
area. The results obtained showed that the major oxides such as SiO
2, Al2O3, TiO
2,
Fe
2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, K2
O and P2O5 were detected in variable proportions. While SiO2 varied between 70.59% and 98.70%,
Al2O3 ranged between 15.73% and 0.61%. There is abundance of barium (Ba), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) with
concentration values of 1.6-9.8, 1.24-7.1 and 0.05-10.00 ppm respectively. Base metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Bi
and Cr enrichment factors and their geo-accumulation index indicates moderately significance to very high
enrichment of Cu (10 – 70%) , Pb (20 – 40%) and Bi (10 – 40%). The geo-accumulation indices suggest
geogenic concentration of the base metals in the host rocks rather than anthropogenic inputs. The PCA elements
loaded Au, As, Ag, Pt and Os on the same factor and they are pathfinder elements of Gold. Correlation
coefficients indicate strong positive correlations between the elements. This implies that they are strongly related
and therefore of the same source, also suggesting geogenic sources.
Heavy Mineral Analysis and Provenance Studies of Surma Sediments in and Aroun...RSIS International
A thick sedimentary succession belonging to Surma
Group (Miocene) is well exposed along the road section (NH-37)
in and around Nungba, Tamenglong district, Western Manipur.
The Surma sediments have been analyzed for their heavy
mineral suite following heavy liquid separation technique. The
research result reveals the dominance of transparent varieties
over the opaques. The diagnostic non-opaque variety includes
Zircon, Tourmaline, Rutile, Garnet, Phlogopite, Sphene,
Scapolite, Humite, Glauconite, Glaucophane, Wollastonite,
Sillimanite, Staurolite, Chlorite, Chloritoid, Chondrodite and
Hedenbergite. The heavy minerals suite is characterised by the
presence Euhedral, Anhedral as well as Rounded to Sub-rounded
varieties indicating a mixed provenance for the Surma
sedimentation. Among the opaque variety iron-oxide is most
abundant. The value for ZTR Index has been calculated to be
40.4 indicating a mineralogically an overall submature for
Surma sediments.
Project work on Lithological succession, Stratigraphic classification, characteristic features, and Mineral resources of Thakkhola –Mustang Garben Sediments
Sedimentological and Palynological Approach for Determining the Depositional ...Md. Yousuf Gazi
Sitakund anticlinal structure exposes about 1.5 km of Surma group sediments and has been chosen for a comprehensive study of the
mudrocks depositional environment based on sedimentological and palynological evidences. Five mudrock facies have been identified in
this region. They are Mudstone Dominated, Sand/Silt Streaked Shale, Fissile Shale, Laminated Shale and Lenticular Bedded Shale. The
palynological assemblages from these samples have been analyzed qualitatively, and a variety of pollen, spores, algae and fungi identified.
The pollen and spores have been attributed to parent plants located at the immediate and more regional surrounding areas during the
deposition of these sediments. Palynological assemblages incorporates ample of Palmae grains such as spores in the Palmipollenites and
Proxaperites and predominance of pteridophytic spores. The occurrences and abundances of these pollens indicate that the deposition of the
Surma mudrocks took place at the proximity of the shore level. Coastal fluvial environment is also triumphed after the previous depositional
event which is apparent by the occurrence of palynomorphs of pteridophytes, angiosperms and algal origin.
Similar to Preliminary Studies of the Litho-Structural Evolution of Areas Around Obudu Northeast, Sheet 291, Southeastern Nigeria (20)
Injection Analysis of Hera And Betano New Power Plants At the Interconnection...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Electricity system in Timor Leste is supplied from small scale Diesel Power Plants (DPP) which are distributed at each district that not interconnected, as the consequences, electric continuity at some districts are disturbed so caused power outage. To overcome the matters, the steps taken by Timor Leste government by establishing 2 units of centered DPP with total capacity of 250 MW at Dili District of 120 MW and at BetanoDistrict of 130 MW. The new power plant will be injected at the electricity system of Timor Leste through transmission line of 150 kV. The new power plant injection will cause the power flow and system stability of Timor Leste entirely. Steady state analysis done including the power flow analysis before and after injection of DPP of Hera and Betano so can be seen the voltage profile change and the decrease of electric power losses. Beside the steady state analysis, also done the power system stability analysis to know whether the system can operate normally after short circuit disturbance of three phases before and after new DPP injection. The steady state analysis showed that the system voltage condition before injection of DPP of Hera and Betano experience decrease of -13% from the sending voltage, and the active power losses of 6.8%. After DPP of Hera and Betano injection the decrease only -6% and active power losses can be minimized become 5.3%. The results of power system stability showed the rotor angle stability, frequency and voltage stability during disturbance occurrence become more stable after injection with recovery time faster if compared with before injection of new power plant.
Harmonic AnalysisofDistribution System Due to Embedded Generation InjectionIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:The increased demand for electricity and the depletion of fossil energy sources are a challenge to exploit new and renewable energy sources. Relatively cheap renewable energy sources are Wind Power Plant (WPP) and Photovoltaic System (PV). Currently, many small scale generating plants are being evolved into conventional systems known as Embedded Generation (EG). EG as a source of electricity in the distribution system will affect the flow of system power, system reliability, voltage profile and others. Besides, with the placement of converter technology in WPP and PV system will give contribution of harmonic enhancement to the system. This paper presents the harmonic analysis of WPP and PV designs that are injected into conventional distribution system in one bus at Pujon feeder station Malang, Indonesia. The bus is chosen because in this area the need for electric power in the area is very high and the existing system has a harmonic value of 11%. Hybrid Active Filter (HAF) is designed to lower the voltage harmonics due to EG injection into existing systems without affecting harmonics in other buses. To analyze the harmonics in this study there are 4 scenarios offered: Scenario 1 starts with analysis on existing system, scenario 2 existing in WPP 2 MVA injection, scenario 3, injection1.3 MVA PV, scenario 4 injected EG (WPP and PV). The simulation result using PSCAD 4.5 shows in scenario 4 to generate harmonic voltage of 18.6% and after added with HAF, the harmonic value of the voltage becomes 2.434%
Decision Support System Implementation for Candidate Selection of the Head of...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: One of agency under the subdivision of The Indonesian National Army is Bintaldam V Brawijaya, acts as the mental founding agency. The head of affairs position replacement is often occurred in this agency, but the positions currently have a large number of incompetence person in charge. Subjection inthe election process leads to the inaccurate placement, resulting in poor leadership. The process of head of affairs assignment starts from candidates dispatching from each head of administrative section. Those candidates must then meet the three elements of assessment, i.e. the personality element, qualification element, and potential element. The candidates will be selected by head of agency as the top leader in the agency. The head of agency, however, poses difficulties to determine which candidate to put into position, frequently because of no proportional system exists to provide assistance in decision making process. A method is needed tomake more accurate placement for better leadership result.This research utilizegroup technology as the assessment elements hierarchical data structure and decision table as the rule evaluation engine to form a decision support system for making the replacement process of the heads of affairs easier and more accurate.
Yield Forecasting to Sustain the Agricultural Transportation UnderStochastic ...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Agricultural transportation is a major part of the United States’ transportation systems. This system follows a complex multimodal network consisting of highway, railway, and waterways which are mostly based on the yield of the agricultural commodities and their market values. The yield of agricultural commodities is dependent on stochastic environment such as weather conditions, rainfall, soil type and natural disasters. Different techniques such as leaf growth index, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and regression analysis are used to forecast the yield for the end of harvest season. The yield forecasting techniques are used to predict the agricultural transportation needs and improve the cost minimization. This study provides a model for yield forecasting using NDVI data, Geographical Information System (GIS), and statistical analysis. A case study is presented to demonstrate this model with a novel tool for collecting NDVI data.
Injection Analysis of 5 Mwp Photovoltaic Power Plant on 20 Kv Distribution Ne...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT : A new 5 MWp PLTS or PV has been built in Oelpuah Village, Kupang Tengah. According to PT. PLN NTT,the amount of injected power to the distribution network cannot reach its maximum capability. At the moment, the average value of injected active power is 2 MWp. In this paper, a solution to achieve maximum injected power will be discussed. As a result of the study, the main problem is absence of energy storage. It cause the output power of the PV strongly affected by the weather. Hence a fluctuation of generated power cannot be avoided. The frequency in the distribution network system can be easily increased or decreased. Sudden drop in frequency due to 5 MWp lost, will cause the frequency to decrease beyond the standard value. The under frequency relay trips because it takes a long time to return to the originalvalue. A 5% of droop setting value is not suitable with those conditions. The droop characteristic setting should be reduced to 1% as a proposed solution. So that the response to frequency changes is more sensitive
Developing A Prediction Model for Tensile Elastic Modulus of Steel Fiber – Ce...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper attempts to develop a prediction model that can be used in line with prescribed laboratory experiments for indirect tensile test such that tensile elastic modulus can be predicted for cement stabilized lateritic soil reinforced with steel fiber using measured properties of the material. The results of the tensile elastic modulus obtained from the Derived Prediction Model almost nearly replicates that obtained from calculations from laboratory experimentation. Results obtained revealed that both the predicted values and calculated values have a linear correlation with an R2 of 96.4%. On this basis the Derived Prediction Model can be said to be valid within the limits of the study.
Effect of Liquid Viscosity on Sloshing in A Rectangular TankIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT : Liquid sloshing was investigated for a moving partially filled rectangular tank with/without vertical baffles. A set of experiments was conducted using two types of liquids: water and sunflower oil. For these liquids, the effects of varying the external excitation amplitude and the number of vertical baffles on sloshing are discussed. It was found that the mechanical dissipation due to the liquid viscosity has a remarkable influence on the sloshing characteristics
Design and Implementation Decision Support System using MADM Methode for Bank...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The function of banking process can be broadly defined as an institution functioning as a capital receiver and lender, as well as support for trading and payment transactions. In order to maintain the stability of the economy through lending, Bank Indonesia issued a form letter on March 15, 2012 on the application of risk management for the bank conducting credit. In an effort to minimize these problems, Bank Indonesia recommends the precautionary principle in arranging the loan terms and choose the prospective customer in the credit granting institutions, both banks and cooperatives to take into account the risk on lending. A method is needed to select bank for credit applications to the public, i.e. the customer. This research uses the comparison of MADM (Multiple Attribute Decision Making) between TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) method and ELECTRE (ELimination Et Choix TRaduisant la realitE) method for the loan provisions to the customers. With the hope of getting the quickest and the most accurate solutions, the hesitancy in determining customers for lending can then be minimized.
Investigations on The Effects of Different Heat Transfer Coefficients in The ...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: In the metal machining, the cutting fluid has become a tough problem in term of the health of works and environmental protection. The heat transfer coefficients of the water-based fluid, mineral oil and plant oil are distinct. An investigation focused on the effects of different heat transfer coefficients (h) on the cutting thickness compression ratio, chip formation, stress distribution and specific cutting energy is presented and discussed. In this study, three heat transfer coefficients have been simulated by Third WaveAdvantedge in machining AISI 1045 steel during different cutting speeds.It has been shown that the Mises stress and temperature are both affected by the heat transfer coefficient. When the h reaches higher, the Mises stress increases and the temperature shows the opposite trend. Also, the results can be found that the chip compression ratio decreases and shear angle increases when hrises. The relationship between specific cutting energy and heat transfer coefficients can be found in this paper.
Strategy of Adaptation of Traditional House Architecture Bali AgaIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT : Adaptation is defined as a change to adapt to the environment or change the environment to fit the need to achieve balance. The Bali Aga community in Pengotan village has a tradition of building a house that refers to the concept of Tri Angga based on the Tri Hita Karana philosophy which is an expression of harmony with God, with human beings, and with the natural surroundings. Each element and layout of the building represents the alignment. In line with the development of the era, the pattern of community life changed resulting in traditional buildings are very regular and uniforms individually undergo a process of change without leaving the concept of Tri Angga and the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana.This paper is the result of field research that examines building changes by taking the example of traditional homes that undergo many changes to be able to conclude how traditional value changes occur in the original house.The results indicate that the change occurred partly due to the personal tastes of its inhabitants without the loss of fundamental changes in their philosophical value.Changes are found in non-structural building components and are strongly influenced by the ease of implementation of construction aspects. The building facade is striking with the appearance of ornaments on traditional buildings previously unknown in Pengotan
Design of Universal Measuring Equipment for Bogie FrameIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: The performance parameters of the bogie which directly affect the quality and safety of train operation should be detected during maintenance, especially the structure parameters of bogie frame after many operation years. Based on the related research of the bogie frame measuring requirement, a universal measuring equipment is designed for metro overhaul. The function, basic principle, structure and software design of the universal measuring equipment for bogie frame parameters are described, and the summary meanwhile prospect are given.
A Design Of Omni-Directional Mobile Robot Based On Mecanum WheelsIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT:As one of the important branch of mobile robotics, wheel mobile robot has long been paid atten tion to by the research people at home and abroad for its high load ability, positioning accuracy, high efficiency, simple control, etc. Mobile robot has close relation to many technologies suc-h as control theory, computer tech nology, sensor technology, etc. Therefore, research on the mobile robot has important significance
An Investigation Into The Prevalence of Code Switching in the Teaching of Nat...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This study examines the functions of code-switching in primary schools by science teachers. In Namibia,English is the official language of instruction for science at primary school. At lower primary, Silozi is the language of instruction. Classroom interaction data was obtained from two science lessons. Analysis of the teachers' code-switching shows that code-switching in the two lessons was vastly different, with little codeswitching in the teacher-facilitated lesson.Evident in other lessons, in which science was taught as a content subjectbut with abstract names that had no corresponding local names in Silozi, there was frequent use of codeswitching for reiteration and message qualification. The direction of the language switch from Silozi to English as well as the proportion of teachersspeaking in English suggests that the official language for teaching is English at upper primary, grade 4 to 7. The science lesson and code-switching is a necessary tool for teachers to achieve teaching goals in content-based lessons involving students who lack proficiency in the instructional language. The study was conducted in five government primary schools in Katima Mulilo, the capital of the Zambezi region in Namibia.The national language is English language, with no exception inscience, mathematics, and language subjects.All Schools are located in a Katima Mulilo-urban. The students are from mixed classes, lower, middle and upper class families with their parents typically working as unemployed single mothers, domestic workers, clerks, nurses, teachers, and accountants. Some of the students could understand English because of their parents‟ educational background or in instances where English is spoken at home.
The Filling Up of Yogyakarta Governor Position in Social Harmony PerspectiveIJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: This paper aims to provide an overview in filling up the position of Governor of Yogyakarta, Distinctive Region, Indonesia, that considering social harmony perspective. Discussion conducts using social harmony perspectives, because the Sultan as the King was suspected to devise making her daughter the Queen who will be automatically the Governor succeeding him. This paper based on sociology legal research, this study approached the legal issues in accordance with the fact in social life, to provide an overview existing condition rules and public perseptions in filling position of Governor of Yogyakarta, especially about gender (female) position. Dataas are collected by interviewed and distributed questionnaires to various groups. Considering the result of research, that the Sultan’s way generated a sufficiently deep polemics in the Palace environment, government and society, so that this even kept away from the customary values of Javanese custom and Islam religion emphasizing on social harmony.
Quality Function Deployment And Proactive Quality Techniques Applied to Unive...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Lecturing and instruction to students at university has traditionally been based on qualifications, experience and position of academics within ones department or college. The higher the level and more advanced the subject then the most experienced lecturers are traditionally selected for that task. Visiting lecturers are never asked to teach basic mathematics or science, they are to share their experience and enlighten the students from a vast knowledge and history. This paper reviews and discusses Kano’s model with Quality Function Deployment related to customer satisfaction and compares if the traditional approach is in keeping with university practice. Furthermore, it argues that industry has concepts and ideas that can be more proactive if applied to an educational environment where students’ demands are ever increasing and their expectations are becoming higher. If universities are to improve student-learning experiences then novel and successful techniques are needed. One such approach is discussed in this research paper to find better ways to improve student satisfaction.
The Analysis And Perspective on Development of Chinese Automotive Heavy-Duty ...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: In recent years, under the influence of both China's domestic market demand and emissions standard improvement, Chinese manufacturers put great effort on the research and design of automotive heavy-duty diesel engine. This paper analyzes the technical parameters of heavy duty diesel engine in 11 / 13L displacement section and introduces its performance. At the same time, combined with the development of foreign heavy-duty diesel engine, the future development direction of Chinese heavy-duty diesel engine is forecasted.
Research on the Bottom Software of Electronic Control System in Automobile El...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: With the development of science and technology, car replacement faster and faster. The development of the automotive industry has a contradiction, on the one hand, the speed of upgrading the car technology can not keep up with the speed of the performance requirements of the car, on the other hand, the country's automobile exhaust emission standards become more stringent. In addition, the depletion of oil resources led to the rise in gasoline prices, the traditional car is facing a crisis. Considering the situation of gas fuel resource structure and supply situation in China, it is feasible to promote gas fuel engine[1].However, the pollution caused by the car has become one of the major pollution sources in the urban environment and the atmospheric environment, and this trend continues to deteriorate[2].Therefore, alternative energy vehicles and hybrid cars is the main direction of development, and any improvement in the car will be car electronics and software replacement for the premise. On the one hand, natural gas as an alternative to gasoline, with its low prices, excellent combustion emissions, the relative sustainable development and other characteristics of more and more car manufacturers favor;On the other hand, the mainstream of the automotive electronic control unit ECU software development to AUTOSAR structure, low power consumption, functional safety for the development direction. Based on the actual development of natural gas engine control unit, the structure and function of ECU software are studied with reference to AUTOSAR software design standard. This paper studies the structure of the application of the software layer of the electronic control system and the main control strategy under the various conditions of the structure, and puts forward the underlying software resources needed by the application layer software. This paper analyzes the internal and peripheral resources of Infineon XC2785x microcontroller and designs hardware abstraction layer software and ECU abstraction layer software. The current characteristics of the jet valve driven by the natural gas multi-point injection engine were investigated. Automotive electronics technology has been widely used in modern vehicles which, and gradually become the development of new models, improve the performance of the key technical factors[3] .
Risk Based Underwater Inspection (RBUI) For Existing Fixed Platforms In Indon...IJRESJOURNAL
Abstract For existing fixed platforms in Indonesian waters, a method to determine underwater inspection basedon the risk level is needed as an alternative for the conventional time-based underwater inspection. This paper discusses the development of Risk Based Underwater Inspection (RBUI) for Indonesian fixed offshore platforms by adopting the inspection scope from API RP 2A-WSD and API RP 2SIM. The risk will be determined based on the calculated Consequence of Failure (CoF) and Probability of Failure (PoF), and then it will be converted into a relevant inspection interval according to the references. In addition, it had also been discovered that the minimum fatigue of a platform that is shorter than the intended design life appeared to be the major problem of the Indonesian existing platforms. Therefore, this condition would be taken into consideration as a factor to override the preliminary inspection interval plan. Sample of 10 platform data located in Indonesian waters were used for RBUI analysis in this paper.
ABSTRACT: In order to achieve the precise control of the four rotorcraft, we must first obtain the accurate mathematical model of the four rotorcraft.This study analyzes the mechanical structure of the four rotorcraft and ignores the effects of the corresponding air resistance and the associated external secondary factors.The actual environment of the four rotorcraft is simplified, and the main factors of the four rotorcraft in motion are seized to establish a more accurate mathematical model.In the modeling process four-rotor aircraft, using the most current hot research field research methods.Mode using the angular velocity and the linear velocity of the separated solver and attitude by the coordinate transformation, and motion Newton Euler's formula to solve.Thereby establishing a nonlinear dynamic model four-rotor aircraft.Finally, a simplified mathematical model of four rotorcraft is obtained by comprehensive analysis of the relevant constraints of mathematical model of four rotorcraft.This makes the accuracy of the model aircraft system higher, more convenient control four rotorcraft.Which has certain reference value and guiding significance for the study of future stability of aircraft system.
A New Approach on Proportional Fuzzy Likelihood Ratio orderings of Triangular...IJRESJOURNAL
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Preliminary Studies of the Litho-Structural Evolution of Areas Around Obudu Northeast, Sheet 291, Southeastern Nigeria
1. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Science (IJRES)
ISSN (Online): 2320-9364, ISSN (Print): 2320-9356
www.ijres.org Volume 5 Issue 6 ǁ June. 2017 ǁ PP. 15-31
www.ijres.org 15 | Page
Preliminary Studies of the Litho-Structural Evolution of Areas Around
Obudu Northeast, Sheet 291, Southeastern Nigeria
Ajadi Jimoh1
and Yakubu Silas2
1
(Department of Geology, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria)
2(Department of Economic Geology, Nigeria Geological Survey Agency, Abuja)
ABSTRACT: Rocks underlying the northeastern sector of Obudu area forms part of the Bamenda massif which is a
westward extension of the Precambrian terrains of Cameroon into southeastern Nigeria. These rocks are frequently found
in the basement complex of Nigeria and include the migmatitic gneiss as the early metamorphic tectonites constituting over
60% of the outcropping rocks in the study area. The basement rock of the study area comprised of the migmatite gneiss and
biotite-hornblende garnetiferous gneiss as well as the porphyroblastic gneiss and granite gneiss which formed the
basement intruded by the Older granites (Pan-African granitoids). The Older granites in this area include charnockite,
porphyritic granite, medium grained granite, diorite and pegmatite/aplite with relatively undeformed veins of dolerite and
quartz. The presence of garnet nodules in the biotite-hornblende gneiss indicates high grade tectono-thermal
metamorphism of a possible sedimentary protholith. The shearing observed in some rock outcrops are indication that there
have been a series of structural deformation alongside magmatism and metamorphism in the area.
Keywords: Garnetiferous, Granitoids, Massif, Porphyroblastic, Protholith, Tectonites
I. INTRODUCTION
The Obudu NE area falls within the Bamenda massif which, as a result of rocks proximity and similarity, has been
proved to be a westward extension of the Precambrian basement terrains of Cameroon into southeastern Nigeria [1]. The
study area comprised of rocks which are similar to those frequently found in the basement complex of Nigeria and lies
within 1:50,000 Obudu NE sheet 291 bounded by latitude 6º 45‟ 00”N and 7º 00‟ 00”N and longitude 9º 15‟ 00”E and 9º
30‟ 00”E. The area is dotted by high topographic features occurring as elevated hills such as the Usambe hills which rises
2,064m above the sea level to the southeastern part, Binda/Fada hill in the central part, Ushongo hill in the northwest and
Gbonge, Aterse and Manyan Hills to the north and northeast respectively. These hills appear as conical, oval or as flat-
topped ridges of altitudes ranging between 2,000m to 2,064m and are interspersed by peneplains and valleys of major
rivers in the area, draining mainly from south to north. Over 95% of the area lies within Kwande LGA of Benue State.
II. REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Nigerian Basement Complex lies within the reactivated Pan African ancient crystalline shield and it is
bounded to the west and east by the West African and the Congo Cratons respectively, extending westward into the
Dahomey (Benin Republic) and eastward into the Cameroon (Fig. 1). The Basement Complex which is exposed in the
northwest, northeast, southeast and southwest of the country is known to have experienced a major tectono-thermal event
about ~600±100Ma [2] which took place prior to the late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic. The basement complex of Nigeria
consist of crystalline Precambrian rocks and it covers over half of the country comprising of three (3) broad litho-
stratigraphic groups. These are the Migmatite-Gneiss complex, the Schist Belts and the Granitoids. Within the Migmatite-
gneiss complex, there are metasedimentary rocks represented by medium-high grade calcareous rocks as well as pelitic and
quartzitic rocks described as “ancient metasediments” [3]. The schist belts are low grade metasediments which forms
narrow lithological units believed to be relics of a once widespread supracrustal cover [4] [5]. These rocks are infolded into
the migmatite gneiss complex which were both intruded by syn-tectonic to late-tectonic Granitoids in the Pan African.
The geochemical behavior of trace elements has been used to identify the geodynamic disturbances in the mantle
as being responsible for the tectonic activities in the Pan-African basement of Obudu Plateau [6]. The presence of
hypersthene, plagioclase (An38-An46), hornblende and anti-perthitic intergrowths in the rocks of Ukwortung area of Obudu
have been used to propose an uppermost amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphism for the rocks of the study area [7].
This high grade metamorphism was followed by retrograde metamorphism to amphibolite facies grade.
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III. METHODOLOGY
Mapping of the study area was carried out on a scale of 1:50,000 to produce a geological map on a scale of
1:25,000. This was achieved by compass and road traversing to assess rock exposures for the purpose of taking field data
and measurements which are promptly plotted on topographic maps and recorded in field notebook with annotated sketches
and photographs of salient features and structures. Representative fresh samples of the various lithologies were collected
for laboratory petrographic studies. Aerial photograph and aeromagnetic maps of the study area were acquired and studied
while existing literatures on previous work done in the area were reviewed preparatory to fieldwork.
Figure 1: Sketched map of the Pan African mobile belt showing the study area.
IV. LITHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
This section highlights the different rock types, composition, mode of occurrence, distribution, field relationship and other
features. Three major lithological groups were mapped in the study area (fig. 2). These include rocks of the migmatite-
gneiss-quartzite unit, the Pan African Older Granites and the late intrusives. Two textural types of granites were mapped in
the area, including the porphyritic granite and the medium grained granite. Using genetic data, the porphyritic granite was
classified as belonging to the main phase while the medium grained granite corresponds to the late phase of the rock
formation [8]. Generally the granitoids are crystalline, dense and massive rock types, with less than 30% biotite and
hornblende, which makes them leucocratic.
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Figure 2: Geological map of Obudu N.E. sheet 291 showing lithological distribution in the study area.
4.1 Migmatite Gneiss (MG)
These rocks forms the most prominent outcrops in the study area, extending from the southwest through the
central area to the northeast. The migmatites underlain more than half of the study area and in fact represent the country
rock into which the other rock types have been emplaced. The main structural trends are NE-SW and NW-SE. Rocks
mapped under this unit include the migmatite gneiss, biotite-hornblende garnetiferous gneiss, granite gneiss and
porphyroblastic gneiss. The migmatitic gneiss is banded on millimetric to centimetric scale and comprised of the
„paleosome‟ (older pre-existing part which could be schist, gneiss or amphibolites) and the „neosome’ (younger part which
often consists of the granitic rocks, aplites or pegmatites). The foliations in the rocks are defined by the parallel disposition
of the „leucosomes’ (felsic component) and „mesosomes-melanosomes’ (mafic component) as observed near Mbadullah
(06º49‟43”N, 09º26‟23”E). The preponderance of biotite in the rock also defines a strong foliation by its preferred
orientation. Some of the characteristic features found within the outcrops include stromatic pinch and swell structures, as
well as ptygmatic folds and multidirectional joints (fig. 3). Biotite gneiss is generally dark greyish colored, fine- to
medium-grained in texture and exhibits foliation that is marked by alternating millimetric bands of the felsic and mafic
minerals. The mafic bands are persistently thicker and contains nodules of almandine garnets in some outcrops (fig. 4).
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The mineralogy of the biotite gneiss, from field observations, consists of feldspar (mostly labradorite to bytownite
plagioclase), quartz, biotite and hornblende which form the paleosome. The small concordant bands of amphibolite
constitute the melanosome, while the associated felsic rocks comprising of the pegmatite and vein quartz forms the
neosome. Intrusives into the migmatites are made up of quartz, pegmatitic and aplite veins. Xenoliths of amphibolitic rocks
are also common. Hornblende is anhedral to subhedral in shape and pleochroic from brownish green to dark dirty green
colour under plane polarized light. Plagioclase constitutes 40% of the minerals in thin section with poikilitic biotite.
Plagioclase crystals are tabular parallel to {010} and elongate parallel to C and A axis, showing Carlsbad twinning in some
places and polysynthetic twinning in others. Orthoclase is 10% with micrographic texture and colorless in plain polarized
light (figs. 5a & b).
Figure 3: Migmatite Gneiss showing bands (paleosome and Figure 4: Garnetiferous biotite-hornblende gneiss.
neosome) 06º57‟45”N, 09º25‟56”E.near Mbadullah Village.
Figure 5: Photomicrograph of biotite gneiss showing the biotite cluster that define the foliation of the gneiss (a) under
crossed polarized light (b) under plain polarized light. (H=hornblende, B=biotite, Q=quartz).
4.2 Augen Gneiss (Mag)
The rock is composed essentially of biotite, hornblende with minor amounts of quartz, plagioclase and garnet. The
dominant felsic mineral is the plagioclase feldspar and microcline which, where present, constitutes the augen structure.
The mineral foliation were observed to be rimming the porphyroblasts whose longer axis averagely measures 1.5cm while
the shorter axis is up to 0.5cm. On some of the outcrops of this rock, the augen gneiss becomes migmatitic due to pervasive
intrusions of felsic materials. The outcrop of this rock is prominent in the southwestern part of the sheet around Mbachor
(06º46‟11”N, 09º16‟18”E) and Maav Sar (06º46‟21”N, 09º20‟08”E) where a discordant dolerite dyke intrudes into the rock
(fig. 6).
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4.3 Granite Gneiss (GG)
The granitic gneiss rock outcrops as hills around Abado and Hityom with well-developed foliation in which the
quartzo-feldspathic materials commonly form impersistent leucocratic streaks a few millimeters thick, alternating with
bands of the mafic constituents which forms the pervasive foliation observed on the outcrop. Generally, the rock is light to
dark grey in colour with the foliation exhibiting sharp contacts with the intrusive pegmatite and quartzo-feldspatic veins
(fig. 7). This rock constitutes one of the felsic components in the migmatitic gneiss which sometimes becomes thickened as
mappable units and are identified as distinct granite gneiss outcrops. Thin section studies shows that tabular crystals of
plagioclase constitute 15% of the modal composition with lamella twinning. Orthoclase is 20% and shows perthitic texture.
Quartz is 55% and exhibits tectonic micro-cracks. Biotite, muscovite and accessory minerals constitute about 10% of the
modal composition. Anhedral to subhedral grains of biotite shows a perfect cleavage in one direction and pleochroic from
pale brown to greyish green (fig. 8).
Figure 6: An open joint at the contact between a dolerite dyke and porphyroblastic gneiss (06º42‟24”N, 09º20‟09”E).
Figure 7: Sharp contact between granite gneiss and a quartzo-feldspatic vein (06º52‟43.3”N, 09º18‟29.7”E).
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Figure 8: Photomicrograph of granite gneiss (a) under XPL (b) under PPL (B=biotite, Mu=muscovite, O=orthoclase,
P=plagioclase).
4.4 Porphyritic Granite (OGp)
The rock occurs as distinct, large hills of batholitic dimension, forming prominent features in the study
area. The rock fabric is characterized by the presence of subhedral to euhedral prismatic megacrysts of feldspar
(mostly orthoclase and microcline) that measure up to 4cm long with crude alignment along their long axes (fig.
9). The feldspar megacrysts exhibit parallel twinning with the crystals symmetrically arranged. Under the thin
section (fig. 10), large grains of microcline show the usual tartan pattern; colorless under plain polar, light grey
in cross polar and constitutes about 10% of the modal composition. Tabular crystals of plagioclase (10%) shows
polysynthetic twinning and is being altered to sericite. Orthoclase (20%) is colorless in PPL and grey in XPL
showing Carlsbad twinning. Quartz (55%) is colorless and shows triple junction. Subhedral grains of muscovite
(2%) are colorless in PPL with one directional cleavage pattern and bluish in XPL. Biotite (3%) is also
subhedral with a moderate relief and shows pleochroism from brown-dark brown.
4.5 Medium Grained Granite (OGm)
The medium-grained granite is granular textured, massive and leucocratic to mesocratic in colour depending on
the abundance of biotite. Hand specimen and thin section observations revealed that the rock is leuco-granite which is
composed of quartz (50%), orthoclase (15%), plagioclase (25%), biotite (6%), muscovite (1%) and hornblende (3%).
Figure 11 shows the photomicrograph of the minerals in the medium-grained granite in thin section. This rock is localized
to the southeastern part of the study area around Mbadullah and Nye-tiev villages where it is called Uwi Wah hill. The
medium grain granite is sandwiched between the porphyritic granites and gneisses, and sometimes occur as dykes within
the host rock (fig. 9). The low colour index makes it appear light grey from a distance. The felsic minerals constituent is
more abundant than biotite, the main mafic mineral. There seems to be a petrogenetic link between the granitic and
charnockitic rocks in the study area in which the minor, usually bouldery and unmappable charnockite outcrops at the
fringes of the granitic rocks. This is observed here as an admixture of the boulders of the medium-grained granite and
charnockite at the base of Nji hill which is basically composed of granite.
4.6 Charnockite
In this area the charnockite occur as coarse-grained low-lying boulders composed of K-feldspar, microcline (up to
2cm thick), quartz, pyroxene, biotite and hornblende. Weathered parts of the charnockitic rock are brownish colored while
the fresh surfaces show a greenish tinge. Generally the charnockitic rocks are hard, dense and massive (fig. 12) as was also
reported for the charnockites around Ado-Ekiti-Akure areas [9]. In thin section (fig. 13), tabular and elongate crystals of
plagioclase (25%) which shows polysynthetic twinning abound but are observed to be undergoing alteration to sericite.
Orthopyroxene (10%) is weakly pleochroic from pale green to pink. Quartz shows triple junction and constitute about 48%
of the modal composition. Biotite (5%) is pleochroic with a perfect cleavage in one direction. Orthoclase (7%) is colorless
in plain polarized light with low relief. Sericite (3%) is seen as turbid pale grayish grains replacing some altered
plagioclase. Opaque mineral is about 2%.
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Figure 9: An outcrop of the medium-grained granite within the porphyritic granite. Note the crude alignment of the
feldspar megacrysts in the porphyritic granite (06º59‟32.9”N, 09º20‟03.0”E).
Figure 10: Photomicrograph of the porphyritic granite (OGp) (a) under cross polar and (b) under plain polar (B=biotite,
M=microcline, Mu=muscovite, O=orthoclase, P=plagioclase, Q=quartz, S=sericite).
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Figure 11: Photomicrograph of the medium-grained granite under (a) crossed polar (b) plain polarized light. (B=biotite,
Mu=muscovite, O=orthoclase, Q=quartz).
Figure 12: An insitu boulder of a charnokitic rock at the foot of Nji Hill. (06º45‟16.2”N, 09º29‟19.5”E).
Figure 13: Photomicrograph of the charnockite under (a) crossed polar (b) plain polarized light. (B=biotite,
Hy=hypersthene, O=orthoclase, P=plagioclase, Q=quartz).
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4.7 Quartz Diorite (OGd)
The porphyritic quartz diorite rock outcrops as discrete low-lying exposures within the granitic gneiss
host rock, showing sharp intrusive contacts. The quartz diorite is mesocratic to melanocratic textured and
characterized by tabular megacrysts of plagioclase (fig. 14) (andesine) embedded within a groundmass
composed of coarse-grained feldspar, quartz, biotite and hornblende. The rock shows a preferred alignment of
the longer axis of the feldspar megacrysts, indicating flow foliation structure. In thin section, the rock is
composed of quartz (10%), biotite (5%), hornblende (5%), minor pyroxene and plagioclase feldspar which is
observed to be breaking down to orthoclase and sericite (fig. 15).
4.8 Dolerite
The doleritic rock in the study area occurs as small NNE-SSW trending lensoid bands intruding the older gneissic
host rocks. Field observations shows that the dolerite is fine-grained equigranular, massive and sometimes displays a weak
foliation. It outcrops both as insitu intrusive bodies exhibiting chilled margin at its contact with the host granitic rock (fig.
16), as boulders ranging in diameters from less than 0.3m to 0.95m and as discordant dykes (fig. 6). The mineralogy of the
dolerite is variable due to varying amounts of biotite, hornblende and quartz.
Figure 14: An outcrop of porphyritic diorite showing tabular feldspar phenocrysts (06º55‟57.7”N, 09º15‟48.6”E).
Figure 15: Photomicrograph of the porphyritic quartz diorite (a) in crossed polar (b) in plain polarized light. (B=biotite,
O=orthoclase, Q=quartz, S=sericite).
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Figure 16: Contact between diorite and granite gneiss showing quartzo-feldspatic veins, near Ahile village: (06º52‟43.5”N,
09º18‟29.7”E).
4.9 Amphibolite
The rock is fine to medium grained and dark green to greyish black colored with sparse porphyroblasts of
hornblende. Field observations show that the amphibolite occurs as discrete xenolith (fig. 17a) and as thin concordant
lenses, which form elongated bodies in the host rock trending 130° on the Tserga hill, where it is most found as in situ
boulders (fig. 17b). At the contact with the host rocks, narrow discrete concordant amphibolite bands were observed to
alternate with layers of gneiss/granites and are occasionally intruded by pegmatite in few of the outcrops.
4.10 Pegmatite and Aplite
Pegmatites and aplites form the late phase granite series, invading virtually all the rock units in various forms and
shapes. The pegmatites often outcrops as minor concordant and discordant dykes (fig. 18) and veins on low relief or on
ground level which when locally numerous may coalesce to form large pegmatite bodies. They range in size from veinlets
of a few centimeters wide to large bodies of up to 1.5m wide. Hand specimen observations show that the mineral
constituents in the pegmatite include coarse quartz, large euhedral pink feldspar, subhedral to anhedral plagioclase, flakes
of muscovite and black tourmaline. The black variety of tourmaline (schorl) usually occurs as blebs where along with other
mafic minerals forms a selvedge. The pegmatites and aplites that are associated with the gneisses and granites may be
conformable but often cross cut or even oblique to the rock fabrics. Field observations suggest that the pegmatites are
fracture-filling as they utilize weak zones such as joints, faults and tension cracks for their emplacement. The quartzo-
feldspatic veins vary in sizes from a few millimeters to wide bodies up to 1.5m sometimes traceable for over 100m along
strike and often exhibit sharp contacts with the host rocks. Aplitic dykes in the study area are mapped as sub-parallel to
parallel concordant and discordant bodies with saccharoidal texture which often grades into the course texture of
pegmatites with which they frequently associated.
Figure 17: (a) Xenoliths of amphibolite in porphyritic granite (b) Boulders of amphibolite at Tserga hill (06º49‟49.1”N,
09º17‟33.9”E).
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Figure 18: (a) A discordant dyke of pegmatite in porphyroblastic gneiss; (b) An outcrop of a decomposing pegmatite near
Tserga village (06º49‟49.1”N, 09º17‟33.9”E).
4.9 Quartz Vein
Quartz vein is widely distributed in all the rocks types, with varying sizes from stringers of a few millimeters up
to 5cm wide. On outcrops, the vein quartz appears as fracture-filling and this may account for the absence of open joints on
most of the outcrops. Some of the veins are concordant with their host rock foliation (fig. 19) while others are discordant
with sharp contacts. Most of the quartz observed in hand specimen are milky colored.
4.10 Mylonites/Sheared Rocks
This rock is exposed around Ugono village (06º54‟16.6”N, 09º20‟48.4”E) where fine grained quartzitic boulders
with brownish bands are seen as in situ boulders at the foot of Tokude hill (fig. 20). Fresh faces of the cataclastic rock,
which is a product of ductile shearing are white to pinkish in color. Quartz and feldspar are the prominent minerals
observed in this rock.
Figure 19: Concordant quartz vein in biotite gneiss. Figure 20: Mylonitic boulders at Tokude hill.
V. STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Field evidence revealed that the study area is affected by polyphase deformation which has imparted various
structural imprints on the rocks. The two major categories of structural elements observed in the field are the ductile
structures which include folds, foliation, shears, pinch and swell, as well as the brittle structures comprising joints and
faults.
5.1 Ductile Deformation
The most conspicuous ductile structure in the area particularly on metamorphic outcrops is the foliation which
includes gneissosity, cleavages and banding. Foliations in migmatites and gneisses are defined by the parallel alignment of
platy, prismatic or tubular minerals such as mica, amphiboles and microcline megacrysts. The mafic bands that defines the
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foliation in migmatites are marked by flakes of mica and amphiboles as observed around Alogba. The gneisses show
foliation whose bands are sometimes defined by alternating augens of feldspar and streaks of biotite. Slaty cleavages
commonly found in the migmatites are pronounced in the mafic layers showing cleavage planes that are parallel to the
compositional banding and hence defines the rock foliation (fig. 21).
Boudinage is a sausage-shaped pinch and swell body found in the gneisses and migmatites originating from the
deformational stretching of the rigid ductile layers along bedding planes due to the shearing and gradual necking of the
host rock fabrics (fig. 22). Subsequent brittle deformation leads to the formation of boudins from the pinch and swells. The
gap between the boudins is often filled by recrystallized quartzo-feldspatic materials. The folds observed in the study area
are minor with variable geometry ranging from symmetrical, simple to more complex asymmetrical folds which are
common features in gneisses and migmatites (fig. 23). The axes of most tight isoclinal folds are parallel or sub-parallel to
the rock foliation, indicating that the pervasive foliation on the migmatites and gneisses are axial planar to the axes of tight
isoclinal folds. In areas that have suffered intense tectonism particularly on migmatitic gneiss outcrops, the simple axial
planar cleavages are complexly folded into open or crenulated folds (fig. 24).
Figure 21: Slaty cleavage planes parallel to compositional banding in biotite gneiss (06º57‟45”N, 09º25‟56”E).
Figure 22: An outcrop showing pinch and swell near Akambo hill (06º47‟35.5”N, 09º29‟24.3”E).
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Figure 23: (a) Asymmetrical folds (06º59‟09”N, 09º26‟38”E); (b) A fold plunging 30o
with an azimuth of about 015o
(06º5‟45”N, 09º25‟56”E).
Figure 24: A sketched diagram of second generation folds showing re-folded tight isoclinal and crenulated folds.
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5.2 Brittle Deformation
Fractures, faults and joints are the major discontinuities identified in the area. The fractures are of two kinds: open
fractures and healed fractures. The open fractures are aligned in more than one direction in most of the rocks and form the
youngest generation of fractures in the area (fig. 25). The healed fractures are those that have been filled up with late-stage
magmatic fluids. They are usually seen as pegmatites/aplites and silicified veins (fig. 26). Mineralization of gemstone and
metallic ores are known to occur along the zones. Joints is common in all rocks varying in attitude from vertical, horizontal
to inclined and in geometry from strike, dip and diagonal joints. The joints crosscut each other and trend in all directions.
Subsidiary joints sets in the rocks suggest that there are different episodes involved in the generation of these joints. The
main joint direction in the study area is mainly in the northeast-southwest directions while few subsidiary joints trends in
the northwest-southeast directions (fig. 27). Most of the faults observed are of the strike-slip type and reveal variable lateral
displacements ranging from a few centimeters to approximately 1.2m which is commonly translational. Most of the faults
planes have been in-filled by pegmatites, quartz veins and dykes, showing both dextral and sinistral displacements (fig.
28). The faults observed from aeromagnetic survey maps are marked in the field by zones of quartz rubbles and veins
forming dykes or ridges along the trend of the faults.
Figure 25: Open exfoliation fractures in porphyritic granite (06º55‟58”N, 09º15‟49”E).
Figure 26: A fracture in migmatitic gneiss healed with quartzo-feldspatic materials (06º59‟06”N, 09º26‟38”E).
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Figure 27: Rosette plot of joint sets in the study area.
Fig. 28: A Sinistral fault with a strike slip displacement of 35cm in the coarse- to medium-grained biotite granite
(06º59‟32.9”N, 09º20‟03.0”E).
5.3 Structural Evolution/Geological History
Field relationships between the various lithologies mapped indicate that the biotite gneiss is the earliest
metamorphic tectonites in the study area. The parallelism of the slaty cleavage foliation planes and the compositional
banding in biotite gneiss as observed in figs. 4 & 21 as well as the presence of almandine garnet nodules confined to the
mafic bands as observed near Mbadullah (06º49‟43”N, 09º26‟23”E) indicate a high grade gneiss of sedimentary precursor.
The para-gneiss was deformed and partly intruded by Precambrian granitoids, thereby became migmatized in places to
form the basement complex on which the older and younger metasediments were unconformably overlain and deformed.
The migmatitic gneiss has suffered complex deformation which is reflected in the multi-directional trends of its foliation
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planes as indicated in fig. 29. Both the basement complex rocks and the overlying metasediments such as the amphibolite
were subjected to thermotectonic deformation during the Pan-African orogeny which was accompanied by the
emplacement of the Older granite suites, including the porphyritic diorite, porphyritic granite, charnockite, medium-
grained biotite-hornblende granite, pegmatite, aplite and dolerite. Field evidences and data suggest at least more than two
episodes of thermos-tectonic deformations has affected the study area. Foliation trends resulting from at least two phases of
deformation were identified. A transposition of an earlier planar fabric S1 into a later one S2 was observed. The earliest
deformation (D1) produced the primary metamorphic fabrics (S1) which trends NW-SE and was later deformed and folded
by second filial deformation (D2) to form the tight isoclinal folds (F1) whose axial cleavages trend NE-SW and produced
the S2 foliation surfaces. The S2 foliation, which is the pervasive planar fabrics in the study area, is parallel to the axial
plane of F1 folds. Evidence of refolding of the tight isoclinal folds by (D3) that produced the F2 folds can be observed near
Mbadullah (06º49‟43”N, 09º26‟23”E). The third filial deformation episode (D3) is probably responsible for several
fractures, joints, shears and minor faults mapped in the area and may in fact account for some major fold and structural
lineaments observed in the study area.
Figure 29: Rosette diagram of foliation trend in Migmatitic Gneiss
VI. CONCLUSION
The different types of Gneisses which make up more than half of the study area, show structural elements like
foliation, lineament and folding depicting different episodes of deformation. Some of the structural grains mapped include
stromatic in the migmatite gneiss, ophthalmic in the augen gneiss and nebulitic structures in the biotite gneiss. Field
evidence suggests that the granitic rocks in the study area represent syn-tectonic to post tectonic intrusive rocks within the
basement complex during the Pan African thermotectonic event (650+250ma). The presence and abundance of the pre-
existing gneissic country rock as xenoliths in the granites indicates that the emplacement of the granitic plutons was by
piecemeal stopping as also supported by previous workers [10]. The mineralogy of pegmatite, which includes quartz,
feldspar, mica and tourmaline and their close association with aplites have led to a consensus by earlier workers that they
represent granite residue. For example, the alternation of aplites and pegmatites was believed to correspond to alternation
of periods of compression and relief.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The management of the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency is hereby acknowledged for all the supports offered
towards the success of this work.
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