This summary provides the key details about the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a study of the mineralogy and geochemistry of Maastrichtian shale samples from the Mamu Formation in the Anambra Basin of Nigeria. Various analytical techniques were used to characterize the shale samples and investigate paleo-redox conditions. The results suggest the shales were deposited under oxidizing conditions based on mineralogical and geochemical proxies, and were derived from felsic source rocks that experienced strong chemical weathering.
This document provides an overview of coal deposits in the Mamu Formation in the Anambra Basin of Nigeria. It discusses the geology, stratigraphy, evolution and paleoenvironmental characteristics of the basin. It also describes the exploration history of coal in the basin, focusing on deposits in the Mamu Formation. Finally, it discusses the economic potential of the coal deposits for combustion, gasification, and liquefaction. Nigeria has over 2 billion tonnes of coal reserves, with about 650 million tonnes proven, primarily located in the Anambra Basin.
Keys to paleogeographical interpretation of the enugu and the mamu formations...Alexander Decker
The document analyzes the lithofacies, palynological assemblages, and facies associations of the Enugu and Mamu Formations in southeastern Nigeria to interpret their depositional environments, paleogeography, and ages. Palynological analysis indicates a Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian age for the Enugu Formation and Early-Mid Maastrichtian age for the Mamu Formation. The coarsening upward lithofacies and decrease in marine dinoflagellates from the Enugu to Mamu Formations suggest shallowing of the sea during regression. Facies associations grade from transgressive in the Enugu to regressive in the Mamu, representing marine transgression and subsequent shore
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
Petrography of ajali sandstone in ayogwiri – fugar – orame area of western an...Alexander Decker
- The document analyzes the petrography of the Ajali Sandstone Formation in the Western Anambra Basin of Nigeria to understand its diagenetic and depositional history.
- Thin section analysis shows the sandstone is a quartz arenite composed mainly of subangular to subrounded quartz grains that have undergone compaction, dissolution, alteration, and corrosion during diagenesis. This left the sandstone friable with little cement.
- Samples from three locations - Ayogwiri, Fugar, and Orame - exhibited similar diagenetic features including authigenic quartz, reaction rims, and corroded grain margins. This diagenesis reduced cementation and led to
The document provides information about the sedimentary basins in Nigeria, focusing on the Benue Trough. It describes the Benue Trough as a major geological formation underlying a large part of Nigeria. It formed as part of the Central African Rift System during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. The trough contains up to 6000m of Cretaceous sediments and is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Benue basins. While exploration has focused on the adjacent Niger Delta Basin, the Benue Trough shows potential for oil and gas discoveries.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Paleodepositional environment and sequence stratigraphy of outcropping sedime...Alexander Decker
- The document analyzes the paleodepositional environment and sequence stratigraphy of outcropping sediments in parts of the Southern Middle Niger Basin in Nigeria.
- Three main lithofacies were identified (sand, shale, silt) with seven subfacies. Depositional environments were determined to be continental fluvial for the Lokoja Formation and shallow marine to transitional for the Patti Formation.
- Three sequence stratigraphic systems tracts were established - a lowstand systems tract for the Lokoja Formation, a transgressive systems tract for the lower Patti Formation, and a highstand systems tract for the upper Patti Formation. An unconformity and candidate maximum flooding surface were identified.
This document provides an overview of coal deposits in the Mamu Formation in the Anambra Basin of Nigeria. It discusses the geology, stratigraphy, evolution and paleoenvironmental characteristics of the basin. It also describes the exploration history of coal in the basin, focusing on deposits in the Mamu Formation. Finally, it discusses the economic potential of the coal deposits for combustion, gasification, and liquefaction. Nigeria has over 2 billion tonnes of coal reserves, with about 650 million tonnes proven, primarily located in the Anambra Basin.
Keys to paleogeographical interpretation of the enugu and the mamu formations...Alexander Decker
The document analyzes the lithofacies, palynological assemblages, and facies associations of the Enugu and Mamu Formations in southeastern Nigeria to interpret their depositional environments, paleogeography, and ages. Palynological analysis indicates a Late Campanian to Early Maastrichtian age for the Enugu Formation and Early-Mid Maastrichtian age for the Mamu Formation. The coarsening upward lithofacies and decrease in marine dinoflagellates from the Enugu to Mamu Formations suggest shallowing of the sea during regression. Facies associations grade from transgressive in the Enugu to regressive in the Mamu, representing marine transgression and subsequent shore
Granomeric Analysis of Mamu Formation and Enugu Shale around Ozalla and Its E...iosrjce
The study area lies within the Anambra Basin which geologically made up of Enugu Shale and
Mamu Formation. This study aimed at determining the geology and depositional environments of these
Formations through field relationship and grain size distribution as well as morphometric studies. The field
data shows Enugu Shale as fissile, light grey with extraformational clast which graded into Mamu Formation
which is made up of alternating sequence of shale, siltstone, mudstone, coal and sand, it shows a fluctuating
environment. The granulometric study of sand member of Mamu Formation shows characteristic very well
sorted, fine to medium grains which were deposited in relatively turbulent well aerated marine environment
probably above wave base. The bivariate and the multivariate results reveal Aeolian/shallow marine deposit.
The fissility of Enugu Shale suggests that it was deposited in low energy environment, distal to proximal lagoon
environment and the presence of extraformatonal clast indicates fluvial incursion. However, it can be concluded
that Mamu Formation was deposited in fluctuating environment ranging from an oxygenated shallow marine to
acidic swampy environment. Hence is paralic Formation.
Petrography of ajali sandstone in ayogwiri – fugar – orame area of western an...Alexander Decker
- The document analyzes the petrography of the Ajali Sandstone Formation in the Western Anambra Basin of Nigeria to understand its diagenetic and depositional history.
- Thin section analysis shows the sandstone is a quartz arenite composed mainly of subangular to subrounded quartz grains that have undergone compaction, dissolution, alteration, and corrosion during diagenesis. This left the sandstone friable with little cement.
- Samples from three locations - Ayogwiri, Fugar, and Orame - exhibited similar diagenetic features including authigenic quartz, reaction rims, and corroded grain margins. This diagenesis reduced cementation and led to
The document provides information about the sedimentary basins in Nigeria, focusing on the Benue Trough. It describes the Benue Trough as a major geological formation underlying a large part of Nigeria. It formed as part of the Central African Rift System during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. The trough contains up to 6000m of Cretaceous sediments and is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Benue basins. While exploration has focused on the adjacent Niger Delta Basin, the Benue Trough shows potential for oil and gas discoveries.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Geology of parts of Gboko and Makurdi Local Government Areas, Benue State, Ni...Premier Publishers
The study area lies within the middle Benue trough consisting of a sedimentary terrain, and igneous rocks at the northern part. The area has three drainage basins separated by a water divide that trends nearly north-south. The sedimentary terrain comprises mainly sandstone of Makurdi Sandstone with common fold axes trending Southwest-Northeast. It has grain size distribution and stratigraphic signatures suggestive of fluvial environment. The limestone unit is of a smaller area and circumscribed by the sandstone. Fossils identified in the limestone include mostly pelecypods, gastropods and ammoids. The limestone unit is a probable member of Eze-Aku shale. Evidence of igneous activity in the study area is the emplacement of extrusive and intrusive rocks. The extensive rock is porphyritic basalt, with olivine phenocrysts, augite and analcite. The mineral assemblage suggests that the basalt is of alkaline affinity. The intrusive rocks are dolerite and felsic dolerite, with predominance of lime-bearing plagioclase over all other minerals in the felsic dolerite.
Paleodepositional environment and sequence stratigraphy of outcropping sedime...Alexander Decker
- The document analyzes the paleodepositional environment and sequence stratigraphy of outcropping sediments in parts of the Southern Middle Niger Basin in Nigeria.
- Three main lithofacies were identified (sand, shale, silt) with seven subfacies. Depositional environments were determined to be continental fluvial for the Lokoja Formation and shallow marine to transitional for the Patti Formation.
- Three sequence stratigraphic systems tracts were established - a lowstand systems tract for the Lokoja Formation, a transgressive systems tract for the lower Patti Formation, and a highstand systems tract for the upper Patti Formation. An unconformity and candidate maximum flooding surface were identified.
This document is a field training report submitted by Ms. Rohini Singh to Banasthali University in partial fulfillment of an M.Sc. in geology. The report provides an introduction to the geology of the Kachchh region of Gujarat, India where the field training took place. It describes the physiographic divisions and stratigraphy of the Kachchh basin, including the Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary units. It also discusses the tectonic settings of the basin and the major fault systems, including the Kachchh Mainland Fault and South Wagad Fault.
This document summarizes active continental margins, where a continental plate overrides an oceanic plate being subducted. It focuses on the Andes as the archetypal example, describing three volcanic zones (northern, central, southern). The central zone contains thicker Precambrian crust and produces more silica-rich magmas compared to island arcs. Active volcanism occurs where subduction is steep (~30°) but not where aseismic ridges cause shallow subduction (<10°). Magmas result from mantle and crustal melting, interacting with continental crust, giving them distinct geochemical signatures. Large batholith belts were emplaced during periods of uplift and erosion when subduction shallows.
This document provides an overview of the Jurassic system in Saudi Arabia, including:
- Paleogeography of the region during the Jurassic period, when India separated from Africa/Arabia.
- Stratigraphic units of the Jurassic in Saudi Arabia like the Shaqra Group, which contains important hydrocarbon reservoirs.
- Paleoenvironments during the Jurassic, when the Arabian Peninsula was located on the southern margin of the Tethys Ocean consisting of a shallow marine carbonate platform with some deeper intra-shelf basins.
1) The document summarizes a field trip report on the Margalla Hills region, describing 5 stops that examined the local geology.
2) At the stops, the author observed rolling hill topography formed by stream erosion, remnants of the Indus River consisting of sand and mud layers, and outcrops of the Ghandghar Range extension and Muree Formation displaying various rock types and dips.
3) The final stop examined Margalla Hills limestone, identifying its lithology, fossils, age, and stratigraphic contacts.
Field report Gilgit Baltistan by Samiullahsami ullah
This document provides a geological field report from a student's field trip through northern Pakistan. The student visited areas from Muslimabad to Hunza over 6 days, observing and documenting different rock types. Key stops included Besham, Kohistan, Gilgit, and Hunza. Rocks observed included basalts, andesites, metasedimentary rocks, diorites, dunites, gabbro, basalt, gabbro norites and pyroxenites. The report includes an introduction, literature review on the geology of the areas visited, and detailed documentation of stops made each day, including observations of rock types and structures.
This document provides an overview of a geological field work trip to the Hazara area of northern Pakistan led by Dr. Azmat khan. It discusses the stratigraphy and regional tectonics observed. The key points are:
1) The trip involved studying the stratigraphy of the Hazara arc and surrounding areas over 3 days, making stops to examine formations from the Precambrian to Miocene ages.
2) The Hazara arc forms the western border of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxes and is bounded by thrust faults. It has undergone folding and faulting due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
3) The stratigraphy includes metamorphic and sedimentary
The document summarizes volcanic activity in northern central Peru from the Cretaceous to present. It describes three groups of volcanic rocks separated in time and space: 1) The Albian Casma Group volcanic rocks which filled the Casma Basin in a deep sea environment during crustal extension. 2) The Calipuy Group volcanics from 53-15 Ma erupted during a period of extension. 3) The younger Miocene-Pliocene Yungay volcanic rocks associated with major batholith intrusion during transtensional faulting. Although the volcanic rocks are calc-alkaline, crustal extension played a fundamental role in their genesis, whereas their relation to contemporaneous subduction is less clear.
Jalaludin study geothermal djibouti unu gtp-sc-11-46Parti Djibouti
The document summarizes geothermal explorations that have been conducted in the Republic of Djibouti. Surface explorations identified several geothermal provinces in the country, including the Asal Rift, Nord Goubhet Hanle, and Gaggade areas. Deep drilling in the Asal Rift revealed a high-enthalpy reservoir and lower-temperature reservoir. Drilling in Hanle Plain found lower temperatures due to high underground freshwater flow. While geothermal power has yet to be achieved, private sector interest is growing in developing resources in Asal Rift and Lake Abhe region.
The document is a field report submitted by Ahmad Ghani to his teachers Mr. Gohar Rehman and Mr. Zahid. It summarizes Ahmad's field work in the Khair-e-Murat range located in the North Potwar plateau of Pakistan. The report describes the local geology, including the major rock formations from Eocene to Pliocene age, such as the Margalla Hill Limestone, Chorgali Formation, Muree Formation, and Kamlial Formation. It also discusses the structural features observed, such as folds, faults, dips, and strikes. Ahmad thanks his teachers, family, and fellows for their support and guidance during the field work.
“The geological structures in the Bight basin and the possibility of petroleum” school exercise which I made in a group. This was one of our class subject.
Document is published in English, I hope the readers will get some effective information
The document summarizes the Jurassic stratigraphy of the Kutch region in India. It describes the key geological formations that date from the Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous periods, including the Pachcham Formation consisting of limestones and corals, the Chari Formation containing sandy limestones and marls, the Katrol Formation made up of shales, limestones and sandstones, and the Umia Formation comprising sandstone, shale and conglomerate. It provides context that these sedimentary rocks formed during a phase of marine transgression in the western part of India during the Jurassic Period.
This document provides a summary of the geological field work conducted by Muqeet Ahmad in the Ghizer and Hunza districts of northern Pakistan. Over the course of one week in September 2018, Muqeet visited several sites in each district to identify rock types, study regional geology and geomorphology, conduct geological mapping, and learn from instructors Dr. Garee Khan and Sir Niaz Ali. The document details the specific locations visited each day and notable geological features observed. It provides background information on the tectonic setting and rock units present in northern Pakistan. The field work aims to fulfill degree requirements and increase understanding of the geology of the study area.
The document discusses ice ages that have occurred throughout Earth's history, including the Pleistocene, Carboniferous, and Archean eras. It describes evidence from places like Jharkhand state in India that indicate glacial activity and climate changes during the Carboniferous-Permian period, including tills, conglomerates, and sandstone-siltstone beds. It also briefly discusses the causes of ice ages such as the Earth's orbital cycles and continental positions, as well as effects of the last ice age like sea level changes and ecological impacts.
Heavy Mineral Studies of Beach Sands of Vagathor, North Goa, IndiaIJMER
Vagator beach is situated 22 km away from panjim on the northern side Bardez taluk
approachable via Candolim are Mapusa by road. The beach is projected on both the sides by
promontories. The beach is in arcuate shape, the area included with survey of India toposheet No
48/E/14 which is bounded by latitudes 15º35ˈN 15º38ˈN and longitude 78º43ˈE. The Chapora river
and its tributaries drain the entire region that is the Vagator beach. It flows from North-East to
South-West direction. The drainage pattern is structurally controlled; the Chapora River has its
source in the Ramghat hills of Belgaum district in Karnataka then it flows through the Thilari ghat
and enters Goa. Its length in Goa is about 31 km and the mouth of the river bank, mud bank and
mangroves swamps are common.
In laboratory techniques heavy mineral separation are based mass separation in a liquid
with specific gravity and magnetic separation using hand magnet and Frantz isodynamic separator
at different volts. X-ray analysis was carried out by using RIGAKU ALTIMA IV copper target on the
basis of Bragg’s law. The non magnetic sand grains was observed under optical microscope to
identify diagnostic properties of minerals.
The heavy mineral shoot comprises of opaque (magnetite and illmenite) and transparent heavy
minerals like hornblende, epidote, garnet, rutile, zircon, enstatite and minor amounts of tourmaline.
The light minerals are mainly quartz and feldspars. The magnetite concentration ranges between 2.01
to 56.86% and Ilmenite between 2.83 to 41.04% and non mangnetics between 1.18 to 44.81%. X ray
diffraction studies and SEM (Scanning electron microscope) studies were employed to study the
mineralogical composition of beach sands of Vagator and detailed investigations are dealt in the
paper.
GRANULOMETRIC ANALYSIS AND HEAVY MINERAL STUDIES OF BIMA SANDSTONEAgbaje Mayowa
This document discusses a study on the granulometric analysis and heavy mineral studies of the Bima Sandstone formation in the Upper Benue Trough of Nigeria. The Bima Sandstone is the oldest sedimentary deposit in the region, consisting mainly of arkose to quartz arenite. Previous studies on the composition and depositional structures of the Bima Sandstone are reviewed. The location of the study area is described as being 10km east of Hinna community in Gombe state, Nigeria within the Upper Benue Trough. An overview of the geology of the study area is provided, including details on the stratigraphy and lithology of the Bima Sandstone formation.
Nimisha Verma completed a field visit to study the geology of Bhuj and Kachchh, Gujarat from January 6-15, 2014. The report summarizes the key activities and learnings from the visit. It provides an overview of the geography, geomorphology, climate, and stratigraphy of the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks in the region. Each day of the visit is summarized, describing the locations visited and geological concepts observed and discussed. The report concludes that field trips play an important role in facilitating understanding of geological concepts and developing skills in observation, data collection, and interpretation.
Geochemistry and mineralogy of the campanian sandstone ofAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the geochemistry and mineralogy of Campanian sandstones from the Lokoja-Basange Formation in the Anambra Basin in Nigeria. Twenty-six sandstone samples from two sections were investigated using mineralogical, geochemical, and pore water chemistry analyses. The results revealed quartz and kaolinite as major minerals, with the sandstones classified as mature lithic arenites and protoquartzites. Geochemical indices suggested intense chemical weathering and a felsic source rock. Discrimination diagrams placed the samples in active and passive continental margin settings. Low Cu/Zn ratios indicated deposition under oxidizing conditions. The study aimed to determine the provenance, tect
paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the cental swamp depobelt niger delta ba...AkpatiChidinmachuks
This document summarizes a study on the biostratigraphy and paleoenvironment of sections from two wells, XY-1 and XY-2, located in the Central Swamp Depobelt of the Niger Delta Basin in Nigeria. Eighty-nine cutting samples from the wells, ranging from 1960-2470m and 2000-2380m depth, were analyzed for their lithology, palynomorph content, and age. Five palynological zones were established. The samples indicated depositional environments ranging from middle to inner-neritic to marine. Based on the palynomorph analysis, an Early Oligocene to Middle Miocene age was assigned to the studied well sections. The study aims to determine the lithology,
This document is a field training report submitted by Ms. Rohini Singh to Banasthali University in partial fulfillment of an M.Sc. in geology. The report provides an introduction to the geology of the Kachchh region of Gujarat, India where the field training took place. It describes the physiographic divisions and stratigraphy of the Kachchh basin, including the Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Quaternary units. It also discusses the tectonic settings of the basin and the major fault systems, including the Kachchh Mainland Fault and South Wagad Fault.
This document summarizes active continental margins, where a continental plate overrides an oceanic plate being subducted. It focuses on the Andes as the archetypal example, describing three volcanic zones (northern, central, southern). The central zone contains thicker Precambrian crust and produces more silica-rich magmas compared to island arcs. Active volcanism occurs where subduction is steep (~30°) but not where aseismic ridges cause shallow subduction (<10°). Magmas result from mantle and crustal melting, interacting with continental crust, giving them distinct geochemical signatures. Large batholith belts were emplaced during periods of uplift and erosion when subduction shallows.
This document provides an overview of the Jurassic system in Saudi Arabia, including:
- Paleogeography of the region during the Jurassic period, when India separated from Africa/Arabia.
- Stratigraphic units of the Jurassic in Saudi Arabia like the Shaqra Group, which contains important hydrocarbon reservoirs.
- Paleoenvironments during the Jurassic, when the Arabian Peninsula was located on the southern margin of the Tethys Ocean consisting of a shallow marine carbonate platform with some deeper intra-shelf basins.
1) The document summarizes a field trip report on the Margalla Hills region, describing 5 stops that examined the local geology.
2) At the stops, the author observed rolling hill topography formed by stream erosion, remnants of the Indus River consisting of sand and mud layers, and outcrops of the Ghandghar Range extension and Muree Formation displaying various rock types and dips.
3) The final stop examined Margalla Hills limestone, identifying its lithology, fossils, age, and stratigraphic contacts.
Field report Gilgit Baltistan by Samiullahsami ullah
This document provides a geological field report from a student's field trip through northern Pakistan. The student visited areas from Muslimabad to Hunza over 6 days, observing and documenting different rock types. Key stops included Besham, Kohistan, Gilgit, and Hunza. Rocks observed included basalts, andesites, metasedimentary rocks, diorites, dunites, gabbro, basalt, gabbro norites and pyroxenites. The report includes an introduction, literature review on the geology of the areas visited, and detailed documentation of stops made each day, including observations of rock types and structures.
This document provides an overview of a geological field work trip to the Hazara area of northern Pakistan led by Dr. Azmat khan. It discusses the stratigraphy and regional tectonics observed. The key points are:
1) The trip involved studying the stratigraphy of the Hazara arc and surrounding areas over 3 days, making stops to examine formations from the Precambrian to Miocene ages.
2) The Hazara arc forms the western border of the Hazara-Kashmir syntaxes and is bounded by thrust faults. It has undergone folding and faulting due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
3) The stratigraphy includes metamorphic and sedimentary
The document summarizes volcanic activity in northern central Peru from the Cretaceous to present. It describes three groups of volcanic rocks separated in time and space: 1) The Albian Casma Group volcanic rocks which filled the Casma Basin in a deep sea environment during crustal extension. 2) The Calipuy Group volcanics from 53-15 Ma erupted during a period of extension. 3) The younger Miocene-Pliocene Yungay volcanic rocks associated with major batholith intrusion during transtensional faulting. Although the volcanic rocks are calc-alkaline, crustal extension played a fundamental role in their genesis, whereas their relation to contemporaneous subduction is less clear.
Jalaludin study geothermal djibouti unu gtp-sc-11-46Parti Djibouti
The document summarizes geothermal explorations that have been conducted in the Republic of Djibouti. Surface explorations identified several geothermal provinces in the country, including the Asal Rift, Nord Goubhet Hanle, and Gaggade areas. Deep drilling in the Asal Rift revealed a high-enthalpy reservoir and lower-temperature reservoir. Drilling in Hanle Plain found lower temperatures due to high underground freshwater flow. While geothermal power has yet to be achieved, private sector interest is growing in developing resources in Asal Rift and Lake Abhe region.
The document is a field report submitted by Ahmad Ghani to his teachers Mr. Gohar Rehman and Mr. Zahid. It summarizes Ahmad's field work in the Khair-e-Murat range located in the North Potwar plateau of Pakistan. The report describes the local geology, including the major rock formations from Eocene to Pliocene age, such as the Margalla Hill Limestone, Chorgali Formation, Muree Formation, and Kamlial Formation. It also discusses the structural features observed, such as folds, faults, dips, and strikes. Ahmad thanks his teachers, family, and fellows for their support and guidance during the field work.
“The geological structures in the Bight basin and the possibility of petroleum” school exercise which I made in a group. This was one of our class subject.
Document is published in English, I hope the readers will get some effective information
The document summarizes the Jurassic stratigraphy of the Kutch region in India. It describes the key geological formations that date from the Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous periods, including the Pachcham Formation consisting of limestones and corals, the Chari Formation containing sandy limestones and marls, the Katrol Formation made up of shales, limestones and sandstones, and the Umia Formation comprising sandstone, shale and conglomerate. It provides context that these sedimentary rocks formed during a phase of marine transgression in the western part of India during the Jurassic Period.
This document provides a summary of the geological field work conducted by Muqeet Ahmad in the Ghizer and Hunza districts of northern Pakistan. Over the course of one week in September 2018, Muqeet visited several sites in each district to identify rock types, study regional geology and geomorphology, conduct geological mapping, and learn from instructors Dr. Garee Khan and Sir Niaz Ali. The document details the specific locations visited each day and notable geological features observed. It provides background information on the tectonic setting and rock units present in northern Pakistan. The field work aims to fulfill degree requirements and increase understanding of the geology of the study area.
The document discusses ice ages that have occurred throughout Earth's history, including the Pleistocene, Carboniferous, and Archean eras. It describes evidence from places like Jharkhand state in India that indicate glacial activity and climate changes during the Carboniferous-Permian period, including tills, conglomerates, and sandstone-siltstone beds. It also briefly discusses the causes of ice ages such as the Earth's orbital cycles and continental positions, as well as effects of the last ice age like sea level changes and ecological impacts.
Heavy Mineral Studies of Beach Sands of Vagathor, North Goa, IndiaIJMER
Vagator beach is situated 22 km away from panjim on the northern side Bardez taluk
approachable via Candolim are Mapusa by road. The beach is projected on both the sides by
promontories. The beach is in arcuate shape, the area included with survey of India toposheet No
48/E/14 which is bounded by latitudes 15º35ˈN 15º38ˈN and longitude 78º43ˈE. The Chapora river
and its tributaries drain the entire region that is the Vagator beach. It flows from North-East to
South-West direction. The drainage pattern is structurally controlled; the Chapora River has its
source in the Ramghat hills of Belgaum district in Karnataka then it flows through the Thilari ghat
and enters Goa. Its length in Goa is about 31 km and the mouth of the river bank, mud bank and
mangroves swamps are common.
In laboratory techniques heavy mineral separation are based mass separation in a liquid
with specific gravity and magnetic separation using hand magnet and Frantz isodynamic separator
at different volts. X-ray analysis was carried out by using RIGAKU ALTIMA IV copper target on the
basis of Bragg’s law. The non magnetic sand grains was observed under optical microscope to
identify diagnostic properties of minerals.
The heavy mineral shoot comprises of opaque (magnetite and illmenite) and transparent heavy
minerals like hornblende, epidote, garnet, rutile, zircon, enstatite and minor amounts of tourmaline.
The light minerals are mainly quartz and feldspars. The magnetite concentration ranges between 2.01
to 56.86% and Ilmenite between 2.83 to 41.04% and non mangnetics between 1.18 to 44.81%. X ray
diffraction studies and SEM (Scanning electron microscope) studies were employed to study the
mineralogical composition of beach sands of Vagator and detailed investigations are dealt in the
paper.
GRANULOMETRIC ANALYSIS AND HEAVY MINERAL STUDIES OF BIMA SANDSTONEAgbaje Mayowa
This document discusses a study on the granulometric analysis and heavy mineral studies of the Bima Sandstone formation in the Upper Benue Trough of Nigeria. The Bima Sandstone is the oldest sedimentary deposit in the region, consisting mainly of arkose to quartz arenite. Previous studies on the composition and depositional structures of the Bima Sandstone are reviewed. The location of the study area is described as being 10km east of Hinna community in Gombe state, Nigeria within the Upper Benue Trough. An overview of the geology of the study area is provided, including details on the stratigraphy and lithology of the Bima Sandstone formation.
Nimisha Verma completed a field visit to study the geology of Bhuj and Kachchh, Gujarat from January 6-15, 2014. The report summarizes the key activities and learnings from the visit. It provides an overview of the geography, geomorphology, climate, and stratigraphy of the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks in the region. Each day of the visit is summarized, describing the locations visited and geological concepts observed and discussed. The report concludes that field trips play an important role in facilitating understanding of geological concepts and developing skills in observation, data collection, and interpretation.
Geochemistry and mineralogy of the campanian sandstone ofAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the geochemistry and mineralogy of Campanian sandstones from the Lokoja-Basange Formation in the Anambra Basin in Nigeria. Twenty-six sandstone samples from two sections were investigated using mineralogical, geochemical, and pore water chemistry analyses. The results revealed quartz and kaolinite as major minerals, with the sandstones classified as mature lithic arenites and protoquartzites. Geochemical indices suggested intense chemical weathering and a felsic source rock. Discrimination diagrams placed the samples in active and passive continental margin settings. Low Cu/Zn ratios indicated deposition under oxidizing conditions. The study aimed to determine the provenance, tect
paleoenvironmental reconstruction of the cental swamp depobelt niger delta ba...AkpatiChidinmachuks
This document summarizes a study on the biostratigraphy and paleoenvironment of sections from two wells, XY-1 and XY-2, located in the Central Swamp Depobelt of the Niger Delta Basin in Nigeria. Eighty-nine cutting samples from the wells, ranging from 1960-2470m and 2000-2380m depth, were analyzed for their lithology, palynomorph content, and age. Five palynological zones were established. The samples indicated depositional environments ranging from middle to inner-neritic to marine. Based on the palynomorph analysis, an Early Oligocene to Middle Miocene age was assigned to the studied well sections. The study aims to determine the lithology,
Investors have been avoiding the Okurike Barite due to paucity of
information on its economic worth in spite of the high demand for barites by the
local industries. This study was embarked upon to determine the spread and
industrial quality of the barite deposit in order to bridge the information gap. The
Okurike Barite mineralised site was investigated using geophysical Vertical
Electrical Sounding (VES) and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and
geological techniques. The geophysical data were acquired along three profiles
while the barite samples were analysed using the laboratory techniques in order to
determine their elemental compositions and physical characteristics. Results show
that the barites occur with gravels, breccias and weathered basement materials
within a very limited region. The resistivity values of the barite mineralised region
were observed to vary between 731 and ~1500 Ωm. The barites are characterised by
specific gravity of 4.4, density of 3.64 g/cm3, porosity of 28%, uniaxial compressive
strength of 29.4 kN/mm2 and water absorption capacity of 1.5%. The elements Ba
and Fe dominate the elemental composition with 77.28 and 19.98% respectively.
BaO, Fe2O3 and MnO are preferentially enriched with abundance of 71.28, 21.40
and 6.10% respectively. These results show that the industrial quality of the
Okurike Barite is high although its spread is limited.
Geological and Geochemical Characterization of the Neoproterozoic Derudieb Me...Premier Publishers
The meta- volcano - sedimentary sequences in the northern part of the Red Sea Hills comprise a sequence of metamorphosed rocks at low green schist facies of metamorphism consisting of lava flows, tuffs to breccias and agglomerates range in composition from basalts and andesites to rhyolites. Geologically the meta volcano sedimentary sequences is divided into metavolcanic rocks and metasediments. The metavolcanic rocks range in composition from mafic to felsic. The metasediments are represented by banded schist, quartzite and marble. The samples collected for study lie within the field of sub-alkaline rocks except one mafic volcanic sample, which plot near the boundary in the alkaline field and thus follow a transitional tholeiitic to calc-alkaline trend (increasing FeO* relative to MgO). The behavior of the large ion lithophile element (LILE) in the studied metavolcanics confirms the early fractionation of plagioclase. These rocks display negative Nb anomalies, suggesting that the melt source was modified by subduction-related fluids. Tectonically all felsic samples fall in the field of volcanic arc granitoids whereas the mafic units plot firmly within the plate margin field.
Base Metal Mineralization in the Precambrian Rocks of Okemesi-Ijero Area, So...Scientific Review SR
The evaluation of base metals in the bedrocks of Okemesi / Ijero area, southwestern Nigeria has
been carried out to assess their potentials, level of accumulation and enrichment. The methodology included
systematic geological and geochemical mapping of the rocks using grid-controlled sampling method at a
sampling density of one sample per 500m. Ten rock samples were collected at different locations of the study
area. The results obtained showed that the major oxides such as SiO
2, Al2O3, TiO
2,
Fe
2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO,
Na2O, K2
O and P2O5 were detected in variable proportions. While SiO2 varied between 70.59% and 98.70%,
Al2O3 ranged between 15.73% and 0.61%. There is abundance of barium (Ba), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) with
concentration values of 1.6-9.8, 1.24-7.1 and 0.05-10.00 ppm respectively. Base metals such as Cu, Zn, Pb, Bi
and Cr enrichment factors and their geo-accumulation index indicates moderately significance to very high
enrichment of Cu (10 – 70%) , Pb (20 – 40%) and Bi (10 – 40%). The geo-accumulation indices suggest
geogenic concentration of the base metals in the host rocks rather than anthropogenic inputs. The PCA elements
loaded Au, As, Ag, Pt and Os on the same factor and they are pathfinder elements of Gold. Correlation
coefficients indicate strong positive correlations between the elements. This implies that they are strongly related
and therefore of the same source, also suggesting geogenic sources.
Lithofacies Analysis and Petroleum Potentials of Parts of Ikom-Mamfe Embaymen...Premier Publishers
An integrated study involving detailed lithofacies analysis and source rock evaluation were carried out to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and assess the petroleum potentials of the Ikom–Mamfe embayment, southeastern Nigeria. Sedimentological field mapping involving detailed description of lithologic characteristics and facies characterisation was carried out. Geochemical studies were carried out to determine the quantity of organic matter total organic carbon (TOC), soluble organic matter (SOM), the organic matter quality (organic matter type) and level of maturity. Results show that the dominant vertical succession of the various lithofacies indicate a general finning upward succession with basal massive pebbly sandstone, medium to coarse grained sandstones with intercalation of shale and mudstones. Seven lithofacies A to G, were identified. These include: conglomerates, massive pebbly sandstone, trough cross-bedded sandstone, planar cross-bedded sandstone, shale/mudstone facies. These facies were compared with established standard facies association for determining paleoenvironment of deposition. The facies analysis carried out pointed to fluvial (alluvial – braided) depositional system as the environment of deposition. TOC values range from 0.05 – 4.13 wt% indicating poor to excellent and SOM range from 200 – 6000 ppm indicating also poor to excellent. The amount of pyrolizable carbon derived as S1 and S2 peaks suggested that the source rocks possess organic matter capable of generating hydrocarbons. Hydrogen and oxygen indices (HI and OI) ranged from 0.24 to 656 and 0.53 to 61.90 mg/gTOC respectively. Analyses of the evaluated source rock shows that the hydrocarbon potential of the study area is lean and typically of a reworked terrestrial deposit of fluvial depositional system.
This document examines the correlation between dry density and porosity of rocks from the Karoo Supergroup in South Africa. Rock samples were collected from locations between Grahamstown and Queenstown. Dry density was determined using buoyancy and porosity was calculated from particle and dry densities. Average dry densities ranged from 2.5258-2.7723 cm-3 and porosities ranged from 0.4931-3.3095%. A high correlation was found between dry density and porosity, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.9491-0.9982. This correlation should be considered for engineering design related to the Karoo Supergroup rocks, such as casing selection for shale gas fracturing.
Evidences of metasomatic processes during the emplacement of pan african gran...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study of granites in the Ilesha schist belt in southwestern Nigeria. Geochemical and petrographic analysis was conducted on samples from a granite batholith north of the Ilesha schist belt. The results show evidence of potash metasomatism during emplacement, as indicated by the presence of microcline, myrmekite formations, and muscovite grains. Variations in major oxide concentrations with SiO2 suggest a change in mineral phase during differentiation of the magma. The granites plot in the calc-alkaline field, supporting their origin through continental collision during the Pan-African orogeny. Potash metasomatism may have occurred through
Geology and groundwater quality assessment of ido osi area, southwestern nigeriaAlexander Decker
The document summarizes a study that assessed the geology and groundwater quality of the Ido/Osi area in southwestern Nigeria. Detailed geological mapping identified the dominant lithologic units as migmatites, gneisses, charnockites and granites. Water quality testing of 20 hand-dug wells found bacterial contamination above WHO standards and varying levels of physical and chemical parameters, though most were within WHO limits. The water chemistry showed moderate influence from the local bedrock. Regular monitoring is recommended given risks from contamination.
Determining the Hydrocarbon Generative Potential of the Turonian Eze-Aku Shal...Premier Publishers
The Nigeria Benue Trough is an intracratonic rift structure whose evolution is related to the early Cretaceous opening of the South Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Guinea. Study of the lower Benue Trough has revealed that the lower Benue Trough is rich in organic matters and as such capable of yielding significant quantity of hydrocarbons. The Eze-Aku shale in Ibii area is located in the lower part of Benue Trough. Five (5) representative Turonian Eze-Aku Shale samples were collected and analyzed to assess the petroleum generative potential by sediment logical analysis. The Shale (Eze-Aku Shale) is dark grey in color and highly fissile. From analysis carried out the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) content of the Eze-Aku Shale sample from the five (5) sections ranges from 0.51 to 1.17wt. %. The amount of Organic Carbon Content exceeds the minimal 0.5 wt. % threshold for a potential source rock, which indicates that the Shale can generate oil and gas, also the percentage of Organic Matters (OM) as shown ranges from 91.90% to 98.00% suggest a high contribution of organic matter which supports the accumulation of hydrocarbon.
This document analyzes the petrology and geochemistry of greywacke sediments from the ~1.6 billion year old Middle Aravalli Supergroup in northwest India. Attributes of the greywackes such as poor sorting, angular framework grains, and variable chemical indexes suggest rapid erosion under an active tectonic regime. Geochemical signatures indicate the sediments were derived from a young differentiated continental arc rather than the older Archaean basement. Trace element patterns resemble modern continental arc magmas, suggesting a subduction zone setting for the precursor magmas. The sediments provide evidence for thick continental crust underlying the Middle Aravalli continental arc between 1772-1586 million years ago.
Integrated Geophysical Studies Over Parts of Central Cross River State for th...iosrjce
A total of 71 Vertical Electrical Soundings were carried out using Schlumberger electrode
configuration for the evaluation of groundwater potential in parts of central Cross River State, Nigeria.
Interpretation of data showed three to six geoelectric layers. Productive shallow and deep aquifer zones were
identified at depths of 60 m and 150 m respectively, corresponding to a resistivity range of 100-500 Ωm for
shallow aquifers and 1000-2500 Ωm for deep aquifers respectively. The lithologic data of the aquifers revealed
sand/sandstone and very coarsed grained sand/fractured basement, respectively. Seismic refraction survey was
also carried out within the same study area for the foundation study of rocks. The studies revealed an average
thickness of 4.5 m (probably sand/clay) and 10.0 m (probably gravelly sand/shale) for the first and second
layers respectively. The range of velocities for the first three layers are 602 m/s to 960 m/s, 378 m/s to 2,424 m/s
and 1,587 m/s to 5,368 m/s, respectively, indicating that the soils in the area are not homogeneous. It is inferred
from the relative high values of calculated elastic constants in most of the locations, that the soils are well
consolidated and as such suitable for large engineering construction in such locations, while in the rest of the
locations the soils are considered unconsolidated and unsuitable for large construction work due to the relative
low values of the elastic constants.
Hydrocarbon Generative Potential of Campanian Source Rock from Ihube, Anambra...Premier Publishers
Shale from basal Campanian strata of the Anambra Basin has been characterized by geochemical techniques. The aims of this study were to assess the quality of its organic matter, evaluate its thermal evolution and highlight its potential as a source rock. The HI versus Tmax and HI versus OI diagrams were used in classifying the organic matter in the shale indicating the presence of Type III kerogen. Tmax values between 424 and 441ºC indicate that the shales are thermally immature to marginally mature with respect to petroleum generation. Hydrogen Index (HI) values range from 13.89 to 38.89mgHC/gTOC while S1 + S2 yields values ranging from 0.19 to 0.78mgHC/g rock, suggesting that the shale have gas generating potential. The TOC of shale samples of the studied Ihube locality ranges from 1.31 to 1.98%, an indication of a good source rock of terrestrially derived organic matter. The high oxygen index (OI) (26.93 mgCO2g-1TOC) and TS (1.32) suggest deposition in a shallow marine environment. Based on the kerogen type, shales from Ihube, Nkporo Formation will equally generate oil and gas if its organic matter attained sufficient thermal temperature.
Source rock maturation studies using vitrinite reflectance and geothermal dat...Premier Publishers
The source rock maturation levels of six wells in GABO and WABI fields, Niger delta sedimentary basin were evaluated using vitirinite reflectance and geothermal data. The results of the analysis show that the source rocks are mature. Vitrinite reflectance was measured and analyzed in all wells containing greater than 1.0 percent Total organic carbon content (TOC). The thermal alternation index (TAI) values obtained show that temperature was sufficiently good to generate hydrocarbons in the source rock indicating the maturity of the source rock. The GABO and WABI fields have a good range of Vitrinite reflectance values which probably indicate the temperature that were reached in the fields. The average reflectance of Vitrinite in GABO and WABI fields are 0.35 and 0.75, respectively. These values are consistent and suggest that basinal source rocks have begun to generate hydrocarbon.
This document summarizes a study analyzing vegetation across an ecotone between the Red Sea coast and Eastern Desert in Egypt. 98 study sites were established along 13 transects spanning the environmental gradient. 45 plant species from 24 families were recorded. Perennial species were most common. Species distribution was found to correlate with soil characteristics like pH, sand content, and concentrations of ions like sulfate and phosphate. The study aims to understand how environmental conditions shape vegetation structure and composition across the ecotone.
A critical assessment of the problems and prospects of geoarchaeological rese...Alexander Decker
This document provides a critical assessment of the potentials and challenges of geoarchaeological research in West Africa. It discusses how geoarchaeology can help address limitations in traditional archaeological research due to poor organic material preservation in West African soils. However, it also notes challenges like a lack of suitable depositional sites for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. While geoarchaeology has promise, its application in West Africa has been limited by environmental and bureaucratic issues. The document argues that embracing geoarchaeological techniques could still help gain valuable insights for archaeological research goals like reconstructing past climates and human-environment relationships.
Cenomanian – Turonian Foraminifera and Palynomorphs from the Calabar Flank, S...Premier Publishers
One of the most spectacular signatures of global “Oceanic Anoxic Events” (OAEs) of the Cretaceous was deposited at the Cenomanian–Turonian Boundary. This global oceanic anoxic event is also referred to as Cenomanian–Turonian Boundary Event (CTBE). This event is marked by the deposition of finely laminated organic carbon rich sediments deposited under oxygen depleted conditions. The main goal of the present research is to get a better understanding of the marine biota characterizing the oceanic anoxic event in the Calabar Flank. Core samples obtained from two (2) study wells in the Calabar Flank, southeastern Nigeria were utilized for this study and standard biostratigraphic sample preparation/ separation and analytical approaches were applied in the course of the study. The Cenomanian – Turonian age was assigned based on age diagnostic foraminifera (Hedbergella crassa, Heterohelix moremani, Heterohelix planata, Heterohelix reussi, Hedbergella delrioensis, Hedbergella planispira) and age diagnostic palynomorphs (Steevesipollenites binodosus, Ephedripites sp, Leiotriletes sp, Classopollis sp, Classopollis classoides, Classopollis annulatus, Ephedripites jansonii, Cretacaeiporites mulleri, Cretacaeiporites polygonalis, Galeacornea clavis and Triorites africaensis). The sediments of the study wells were deposited in a range of environments from non-marine to mid neritic and the recovered foraminifera are characterized by the presence of abundant but dwarfed planktic forms and low diversity of dwarfed arenaceous forms at some intervals which strongly support deposition in an oxygen depleted environment.
Physicochemical Assessment of Stream Sediments Within Tewure Iju And Elesun A...IJSRED
This document summarizes a study that assessed the physicochemical properties and elemental composition of stream sediments from two locations in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Sediment samples were collected and analyzed for pH, organic carbon, particle size distribution, and concentrations of various metals. The results showed that the sediment pH was alkaline at both locations. Organic carbon and matter levels were low, indicating low carbon retention. Particle size analysis revealed that sand dominated both sites, meaning the areas are well-drained. Manganese and barium had the highest concentrations of the metals analyzed. Trace element analysis found vanadium to be most abundant. The presence of heavy metals could impact the health of local inhabitants and make the streams unsuitable as a water source.
Sedimentology and Geochemical Evaluation of Campano-Maastrichtian Sediments, ...Premier Publishers
This document summarizes research on the sedimentology and geochemistry of Campano-Maastrichtian sediments in the Anambra Basin in Nigeria. Sedimentological analysis of 11 sandstone samples found they consisted of medium to coarse grains that were poorly to moderately sorted and very platykurtic. Six localities studied indicated fluvial-floodplain-marginal marine facies for two formations and marine facies for two others. Geochemical analysis found total organic carbon levels indicating good to excellent source rock potential. Maturity levels suggest the rocks are immature to early mature, with potential reservoir units in fluvial and marginal marine sandstones. Regional seals may be provided by shales and claystones.
La Arena and Alizar are porphyry-type Cu-Au-(Mo) deposits with associated Calaorco and Vanessa highsulfidation
epithermal mineralizations, respectively. In this study, we conducted multiple conventional
geochronologic analyses on samples from La Arena district, with the objective to obtain precise a temporal
relationship among porphyry emplacement, hydrothermal alterations, cooling, exhumation history and preservation,
together with published age data for the district.
A precursor quartz–diorite pluton and a late–mineral andesite porphyry bracketed the mineralization in the La
Arena and Alizar porphyry deposits. Zircon U-Pb dating of these intrusive rocks display markedly concordant
ages, with emplacement beginning and ending at 26.50 ± 0.23 to 25.36 ± 0.07 Ma at La Arena, and at 26.47 ±
0.08 to 25.30 ± 0.07 Ma at Alizar. 40Ar/39Ar chronologic data for hydrothermal biotite from the potassic zone
ranges from 25.97 ± 0.16 to 25.73 ± 0.16 Ma in the Alizar, and hypogene alunite from the advanced argillic
alteration yield an age of 25.66 ± 0.15 Ma in the Vanessa. The weighted mean apatite (U–Th)/He ages of the
porphyry intrusions of the La Arena and Alizar range from 24.26 ± 0.56 to 23.42 ± 0.37 Ma.
These geochronologic data reveal that the porphyry systems were emplaced intermittently for at least 1.2 m.y.
during the late Oligocene (26.5 – 25.3 Ma). The porphyry intrusions would have been uplifted from its depth of
formation at ~ 2 km suggested by telescoped and a short time period (0.07 m.y.; 40Ar/39Ar ages) between
porphyries and associated high-sulfidation epithermal events. The cooling history from zircon crystallization at
800 ◦C to thermal collapse at 75 ◦C (apatite helium close temperature) lasted ~ 2.5 m.y. in the ore-systems. The
thermal collapse occurred coeval with the Inca IV orogeny (~24 Ma), period of rapid uplift and exhumation in
northern Peru (0.24 km/m.y.; (U-Th)/He age-elevation spectrum). If exhumation continued at the rate of 0.24
km/m.y. unroof of the ore-deposits lasted 5 m.y. (24–19 Ma). Since their exposure at ~ 19 Ma, these ore deposits
were subjected to weathering and oxidation during 2.12 m.y. It is thus estimated that approximately 500-m
thickness of materials have been removed from the Alizar and La Arena during uplift and erosion, including a
large volume of ore. Subsequent volcanic activity occurred during the Quechua I orogeny (~17 Ma) at ca. 16.88
Ma, leading to burial and partially preservation of these ore deposits.
Similar to Mineralogy and geochemical appraisal of paleo redox indicators in maastrichtian outcrop shales of mamu formation, anambra basin, nigeria (20)
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) have elevated levels of hormones like luteinizing hormone and testosterone, as well as higher levels of insulin and insulin resistance compared to healthy women. They also have increased levels of inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein, interleukin-6, and leptin. This study found these abnormalities in the hormones and inflammatory cytokines of women with PCOS ages 23-40, indicating that hormone imbalances associated with insulin resistance and elevated inflammatory markers may worsen infertility in women with PCOS.
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
This document presents a framework for evaluating the usability of B2C e-commerce websites. It involves user testing methods like usability testing and interviews to identify usability problems in areas like navigation, design, purchasing processes, and customer service. The framework specifies goals for the evaluation, determines which website aspects to evaluate, and identifies target users. It then describes collecting data through user testing and analyzing the results to identify usability problems and suggest improvements.
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document discusses a study that aimed to synthesize motivation theories into a universal model for managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was guided by Maslow and McGregor's theories. A sample of 303 marketing executives was used. The results showed that managers will be most effective at motivating marketing executives if they consider individual needs and create challenging but attainable goals. The emerged model suggests managers should provide job satisfaction by tailoring assignments to abilities and monitoring performance with feedback. This addresses confusion faced by Nigerian bank managers in determining effective motivation strategies.
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
This document presents definitions and properties related to generalized D*-metric spaces and establishes some common fixed point theorems for contractive type mappings in these spaces. It begins by introducing D*-metric spaces and generalized D*-metric spaces, defines concepts like convergence and Cauchy sequences. It presents lemmas showing the uniqueness of limits in these spaces and the equivalence of different definitions of convergence. The goal of the paper is then stated as obtaining a unique common fixed point theorem for generalized D*-metric spaces.
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
This document provides a review of trends in Salmonella and antibiotic resistance. It begins with an introduction to Salmonella as a facultative anaerobe that causes nontyphoidal salmonellosis. The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella is then discussed. The document proceeds to cover the historical perspective and classification of Salmonella, definitions of antimicrobials and antibiotic resistance, and mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in Salmonella including modification or destruction of antimicrobial agents, efflux pumps, modification of antibiotic targets, and decreased membrane permeability. Specific resistance mechanisms are discussed for several classes of antimicrobials.
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
This document discusses a transformational-generative approach to understanding Al-Istifham, which refers to interrogative sentences in Arabic. It begins with an introduction to the origin and development of Arabic grammar. The paper then explains the theoretical framework of transformational-generative grammar that is used. Basic linguistic concepts and terms related to Arabic grammar are defined. The document analyzes how interrogative sentences in Arabic can be derived and transformed via tools from transformational-generative grammar, categorizing Al-Istifham into linguistic and literary questions.
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the determinants of savings in Namibia from 1991 to 2012. It reviews previous literature on savings determinants in developing countries. The study uses time series analysis including unit root tests, cointegration, and error correction models to analyze the relationship between savings and variables like income, inflation, population growth, deposit rates, and financial deepening in Namibia. The results found inflation and income have a positive impact on savings, while population growth negatively impacts savings. Deposit rates and financial deepening were found to have no significant impact. The study reinforces previous work and emphasizes the importance of improving income levels to achieve higher savings rates in Namibia.
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the importance of exercise in maintaining physical and mental fitness for school children. It discusses how physical and mental fitness are developed through participation in regular physical exercises and cannot be achieved solely through classroom learning. The document outlines different types and components of fitness and argues that developing fitness should be a key objective of education systems. It recommends that schools ensure pupils engage in graded physical activities and exercises to support their overall development.
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
This document summarizes a study examining efficiency in managing marketing executives in Nigerian banks. The study was examined through the lenses of Kaizen theory (continuous improvement) and efficiency theory. A survey of 303 marketing executives from Nigerian banks found that management plays a key role in identifying and implementing efficiency improvements. The document recommends adopting a "3H grand strategy" to improve the heads, hearts, and hands of management and marketing executives by enhancing their knowledge, attitudes, and tools.
This document discusses evaluating the link budget for effective 900MHz GSM communication. It describes the basic parameters needed for a high-level link budget calculation, including transmitter power, antenna gains, path loss, and propagation models. Common propagation models for 900MHz that are described include Okumura model for urban areas and Hata model for urban, suburban, and open areas. Rain attenuation is also incorporated using the updated ITU model to improve communication during rainfall.
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
This document discusses contraceptive use in Punjab, Pakistan. It begins by providing background on the benefits of family planning and contraceptive use for maternal and child health. It then analyzes contraceptive commodity data from Punjab, finding that use is still low despite efforts to improve access. The document concludes by emphasizing the need for strategies to bridge gaps and meet the unmet need for effective and affordable contraceptive methods and supplies in Punjab in order to improve health outcomes.
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
1) The document discusses synthesizing Taylor's scientific management approach and Fayol's process management approach to identify an effective way to manage marketing executives in Nigerian banks.
2) It reviews Taylor's emphasis on efficiency and breaking tasks into small parts, and Fayol's focus on developing general management principles.
3) The study administered a survey to 303 marketing executives in Nigerian banks to test if combining elements of Taylor and Fayol's approaches would help manage their performance through clear roles, accountability, and motivation. Statistical analysis supported combining the two approaches.
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
This document summarizes four algorithms for sequential pattern mining: GSP, ISM, FreeSpan, and PrefixSpan. GSP is an Apriori-based algorithm that incorporates time constraints. ISM extends SPADE to incrementally update patterns after database changes. FreeSpan uses frequent items to recursively project databases and grow subsequences. PrefixSpan also uses projection but claims to not require candidate generation. It recursively projects databases based on short prefix patterns. The document concludes by stating the goal was to find an efficient scheme for extracting sequential patterns from transactional datasets.
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
This document summarizes several techniques for live virtual machine migration in cloud computing. It discusses works that have proposed affinity-aware migration models to improve resource utilization, energy efficient migration approaches using storage migration and live VM migration, and a dynamic consolidation technique using migration control to avoid unnecessary migrations. The document also summarizes works that have designed methods to minimize migration downtime and network traffic, proposed a resource reservation framework for efficient migration of multiple VMs, and addressed real-time issues in live migration. Finally, it provides a table summarizing the techniques, tools used, and potential future work or gaps identified for each discussed work.
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
This document discusses data mining of big data using Hadoop and MongoDB. It provides an overview of Hadoop and MongoDB and their uses in big data analysis. Specifically, it proposes using Hadoop for distributed processing and MongoDB for data storage and input. The document reviews several related works that discuss big data analysis using these tools, as well as their capabilities for scalable data storage and mining. It aims to improve computational time and fault tolerance for big data analysis by mining data stored in Hadoop using MongoDB and MapReduce.
1. The document discusses several challenges for integrating media with cloud computing including media content convergence, scalability and expandability, finding appropriate applications, and reliability.
2. Media content convergence challenges include dealing with the heterogeneity of media types, services, networks, devices, and quality of service requirements as well as integrating technologies used by media providers and consumers.
3. Scalability and expandability challenges involve adapting to the increasing volume of media content and being able to support new media formats and outlets over time.
This document surveys trust architectures that leverage provenance in wireless sensor networks. It begins with background on provenance, which refers to the documented history or derivation of data. Provenance can be used to assess trust by providing metadata about how data was processed. The document then discusses challenges for using provenance to establish trust in wireless sensor networks, which have constraints on energy and computation. Finally, it provides background on trust, which is the subjective probability that a node will behave dependably. Trust architectures need to be lightweight to account for the constraints of wireless sensor networks.
This document discusses private equity investments in Kenya. It provides background on private equity and discusses trends in various regions. The objectives of the study discussed are to establish the extent of private equity adoption in Kenya, identify common forms of private equity utilized, and determine typical exit strategies. Private equity can involve venture capital, leveraged buyouts, or mezzanine financing. Exits allow recycling of capital into new opportunities. The document provides context on private equity globally and in developing markets like Africa to frame the goals of the study.
This document discusses a study that analyzes the financial health of the Indian logistics industry from 2005-2012 using Altman's Z-score model. The study finds that the average Z-score for selected logistics firms was in the healthy to very healthy range during the study period. The average Z-score increased from 2006 to 2010 when the Indian economy was hit by the global recession, indicating the overall performance of the Indian logistics industry was good. The document reviews previous literature on measuring financial performance and distress using ratios and Z-scores, and outlines the objectives and methodology used in the current study.
Goodbye Windows 11: Make Way for Nitrux Linux 3.5.0!SOFTTECHHUB
As the digital landscape continually evolves, operating systems play a critical role in shaping user experiences and productivity. The launch of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 marks a significant milestone, offering a robust alternative to traditional systems such as Windows 11. This article delves into the essence of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, exploring its unique features, advantages, and how it stands as a compelling choice for both casual users and tech enthusiasts.
GraphSummit Singapore | The Future of Agility: Supercharging Digital Transfor...Neo4j
Leonard Jayamohan, Partner & Generative AI Lead, Deloitte
This keynote will reveal how Deloitte leverages Neo4j’s graph power for groundbreaking digital twin solutions, achieving a staggering 100x performance boost. Discover the essential role knowledge graphs play in successful generative AI implementations. Plus, get an exclusive look at an innovative Neo4j + Generative AI solution Deloitte is developing in-house.
Programming Foundation Models with DSPy - Meetup SlidesZilliz
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Mineralogy and geochemical appraisal of paleo redox indicators in maastrichtian outcrop shales of mamu formation, anambra basin, nigeria
1. Journal of Natural Sciences Research
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
Mineralogy and Geochemical Appraisal of Paleo-Redox
Indicators in Maastrichtian Outcrop Shales of Mamu Formation,
Anambra Basin, Nigeria
Akinyemi1, S. A., Adebayo1, O. F., Ojo1, O. A., Fadipe2, O. A., Gitari3, W. M.
1. Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University Ado Ekiti, Private Mail Bag 5363, Ado
Ekiti, Nigeria.
2. Petroleum Analytical Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences; University of the Western Cape, Private Bag
X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
3. Environmental Remediation and Water Pollution Chemistry Group, Department of Ecology and Resources
Management, School of Environmental Studies, University of Venda. Private Bag, X5050, Thohoyandou, 0950,
South Africa.
* E-mail of the corresponding author: akinyemi70@gmail.com
Abstract
The Mamu Formation exhibits two types of shales, viz. grey and dark shales. The geochemical and mineralogical
compositions of these shales were investigated using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and Laser Ablation- Inductively
Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) and X-ray diffraction techniques. The basal part of the section is
characterized by presence of quartz and kaolinite as the major crystalline minerals with minor quantity of
hematite. The presence of hematite in the basal part of the shale sequence suggests oxidizing diagenetic
environment of deposition. The second geochemically specific interval (upper part) is characterised by quartz
and kaolinite as major crystalline minerals with traces of halloysite and grossite. The ternary plot of these major
elements indicates the majority of shale samples examined are variably enriched with SiO2 relative to Al2O3 and
CaO. The positive correlations of K2O, TiO2, and Na2O, with Al2O3 indicate that these elements are associated
entirely with detrital phases. Some trace elements such as Cr, Ni, and V are positively correlated with Al2O3
which suggest that these elements may be bound in clay minerals and concentrated during weathering. The
K2O/Al2O3 ratio is close to the lower limit of clay mineral range, which suggests that kaolinite is the dominant
clay minerals. The Al2O3/TiO2 and low Cr/Ni ratios suggest that felsic components were the main components
among the basement complex source rocks. The geochemical indices such as Th/Cr, Cr/Th, Th/Co and Th/Cr
ratios suggest that these shales were derived from felsic source rocks. The chemical index of alteration values
indicates that these shales have experienced strong chemical weathering at the source area. In addition, the
depletion of Na and Ca also illustrates an intense chemical weathering of the source rocks. The mineralogical
index of alteration values of the studied shale samples indicates an intense to extreme weathering of
mineralogical components. The shale units exhibits different degrees of trace-element enrichment, with the
approximate order of enrichment relative to an average shale being Co > Pb > Ni > Zr > Cu > Rb > V > Cr > Ba >
V > Sr > U. The inverse correlation between Eh, pH, EC and TDS in outcrop Maastrichtian shale samples
suggests well oxygenated environment of deposition. In addition, based on previously established thresholds,
V/Cr, Ni/Co, Cu/Zn and U/Th ratios support that these shales were deposited under oxidizing diagenetic
environment.
Keywords: mineralogy, geochemistry, paleo-redox conditions, trace element enrichments, shales, Mamu
Formation, Anambra basin, Nigeria.
1. Introduction
Trace elements commonly exhibit considerable enrichment in laminated, organic- rich facies, especially those
deposited under euxinic conditions and, conversely, little if any enrichment in bioturbated, organic-poor facies
(Wedepohl, 1971; Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Algeo and Maynard, 2004). The geochemical behaviour of trace
elements in modern organic rich fine grained sedimentary rocks (i.e. shales) and anoxic basins has often been
discussed (Brumsack, 1989; Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Warning and Brumsack, 2000; Algeo and Maynard,
2004). Redox-sensitive trace element (TE) concentrations or ratios are among the most widely used indicators of
redox conditions in modern and ancient sedimentary deposits (e.g., Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Jones and
Manning, 1994; Crusius et al., 1996; Dean et al., 1997, 1999; Yarincik et al., 2000; Morford et al., 2001; Pailler
et al., 2002; Algeo and Maynard, 2004). Enrichments of redox-sensitive elements reflect the depositional
environment of ancient organic carbon-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks as well and can, therefore, be used
to elucidate the likely palaeoceanographic conditions leading to their formation (Brumsack, 1980, 1986; Hatch
and Leventhal, 1992; Piper, 1994).
Anambra Basin, the first area where intensive oil exploration was carried out in Nigeria, has about 12,000 metre
48
2. Journal of Natural Sciences Research
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
of sedimentary rocks which accumulated in its thickest part since the Cretaceous time (Agagu and Adighije,
1983). The dominant lithologies comprise sandstones, shales, limestones and coal seams. The unrewarding initial
oil exploratory effort in the basin led to its neglect by most researchers in favour of the nearby Niger Delta Basin
which has been prolific in terms of oil and gas exploration and production. With less than 50 wells so far drilled
(two discoveries; Anambra River-1, Ihadagu-1) and very scanty 2-D seismic information, Anambra Basin is
under explored. Again, a simple statistical analysis of the literature review shows that more than ninety percent
of the studies so far in the basin are in the southeast section (Unomah and Ekweozor, 1993; Akaegbobi and
Schmitt, 1998; Adebayo and Ojo, 2004; Ojo et al., 2009; Chiaghanam et al., 2012).
Since the search for crude oil in commercial quantity in the basin still remained a source of concern for oil
companies and research groups, a better understanding of the paleo-redox and paleogeographic conditions of the
outcrops will benefit the oil companies that had secured concession blocks in the basin; and those that may wish
to use this information for deep-water exploration in the Niger Delta Basin. This is because some of these
outcrops packages are said to be equivalent to the lithostratigraphic units within the subsurface of the Niger
Delta (Short and Stauble, 1967).
In this study, we present the inorganic geochemical data for Maastrichtian shale outcropped at Auchi-Igarra road,
Anambra Basin, Nigeria. This is to determine the provenance, redox conditions of depositional environment, and
element enrichments of the studied Maastrichtian shale sequence. The purpose of this paper is in two folds; (1) to
contribute and discuss a wide range of trace metal to the geochemical data set of the Maastrichtian shale outcrop
which are lacking in the current literature (2) to assess the use of well known geochemical proxies (i.e. Ni/Co,
V/Cr, Cu/Zn and U/Th) for discerning paleogeographical conditions of the shale sequence.
2. Geological setting of Anambra basin
Anambra Basin is located in the southeastern part of Nigeria. It is bordered in the south by the Niger Delta
Complex, to the west by the West African massif, to north by Bida Basin and Northern Nigerian massif, and
delimited in the east the Middle Benue Trough and Abakaliki Anticlinorium (Figure 1). The basin lies between
longitudes 6.30E and 8.00E, and latitudes 5.00N and 8.00N. Anambra Basin in Nigeria is considered by some
authors as the Lower Benue Trough, a NE-SW trending, folded, aborted rift basin that runs obliquely across
Nigeria (Figure 1). Hence its origin was linked to the tectonic processes that accompanied the separation of the
African and South American plates in the Early Cretaceous (Murat, 1972; Burke et al., 1996). The rift model had
been supported by evidence garnered by structural, geomorphic, stratigraphic and paleontologic studies
(Reyment, 1969; Burke et al., 1972; Benkhelil, 1989; Guiraud and Bellion, 1995). The evolution of the basin
represents the third cycle in the evolution of the trough and its associated basins when the Abakaliki Trough was
uplifted to form the Abakaliki Anticlinorium whilst the Anambra Platform was downwarped to form the
Anambra Basin (Murat, 1972; Weber and Daukoru, 1975) resulting in the westward displacement of the trough’s
depositional axis. Its sedimentation trend is patterned by the shifting of depocentres.
A great deal of work had been done to elucidate the age, paleoenvironment, paleogeography, sedimentary
tectonics, origin of the deposits, the litho- and biostratigrapy and hydrocarbon (or fossil fuel) potentials of the
basin (Reyment, 1965; Murat, 1972; Salami, 1983; Agagu et al., 1985; Allix, 1987; Akande et al., 1992;
Nwajide and Reijers, 1996, Akande, 2007). The sequence of depositional events suggests a progressive
deepening of the basin from lower coastal plain and shoreline deltas to shoreline and shallow marine deposits
(Arua, 1986; Anyanwu and Arua, 1990; Fayose and Ola, 1990). The resulting succession comprises the Nkporo
Group, Mamu Formation, Ajali Sandstone, Nsukka Formation, Imo Formation and Ameki Group (Table 1). The
detailed stratigraphic description of these formations is available in several publications (Petters, 1978; Agagu et
al. 1985; Reijers, 1996). The rich coal deposits of Late Campanian – Early Maastrichtian ages suggest brackish
environment during their deposition.
3. Methodology/research approach
3. Materials and method
3.1 Sampling technique
Exposed Maastrichtian shale outcrop located at Auchi-Igarra road, Edo state, Nigeria (07º 05.071'N,
006º14.826E; 162.72m above sea level) (Fig. 2) was sampled. 500 grams of shale samples were collected at an
interval of 0.2m from the shale sequence. All the 10 shale samples were immediately stored in zip lock
polyethylene bag and preserved at room temperature. The samples were dried at 60ºC, crushed to fine powder
and homogenized in an agate ball mill. The pulverized shale samples were analysed with XRD, XRF and LAICPMS techniques.
3.2. XRF and LA-ICPMS analyses
The elemental data for this work have been acquired using X- ray fluorescence (XRF) and Laser Ablationinductively coupled plasma spectrometry (LA-ICPMS) analyses.
49
3. Journal of Natural Sciences Research
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
The analytical procedures are as follows;
Pulverised shale samples were analysed for major element using Axios instrument (PANalytical) with a 2.4
kWatt Rh X-ray Tube. Further, the same set of samples were analysed for trace element using LA-ICPMS
instrumental analysis. LA-ICP-MS is a powerful and sensitive analytical technique for multi-elemental analysis.
The laser was used to vaporize the surface of the solid sample, while the vapour, and any particles, were then
transported by the carrier gas flow to the ICP-MS. The detailed procedures for sample preparation for both
analytical techniques are reported below.
3.2.1. Fusion bead method for Major element analysis
• Weigh 1.0000 g ± 0.0009 g of milled sample
• Place in oven at 110 ºC for 1 hour to determine H2O+
• Place in oven at 1000 ºC for 1 hour to determine LOI
• Add 10.0000 g ± 0.0009 g Claisse flux and fuse in M4 Claisse fluxer for 23 minutes.
• 0.2 g of NaCO3 was added to the mix and the sample+flux+NaCO3 was pre-oxidized at
700 °C before fusion.
• Flux type: Ultrapure Fused Anhydrous Li-Tetraborate-Li-Metaborate flux (66.67 % Li2B4O7 + 32.83 %
LiBO2) and a releasing agent Li-Iodide (0.5 % LiI).
3.2.2. Pressed pellet method for Trace element analysis
• Weigh 8 g ± 0.05 g of milled powder
• Mix thoroughly with 3 drops of Mowiol wax binder
• Press pellet with pill press to 15 ton pressure
• Dry in oven at 100 ºC for half an hour before analysing.
These analytical methods yielded data for eleven major elements, reported as oxide percent by weight [SiO2,
TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, MnO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, Cr2O3 and P2O5] and 21 trace elements [Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga,
Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Co, V, Pb, Th, U, Ti, Cr, Ba, La, Ce, Nd and P] reported as mg/kg (ppm).
3.3. Loss on ignition determination
Loss on Ignition (LOI) is a test used in XRF major element analysis which consists of strongly heating a sample
of the material at a specified temperature, allowing volatile substances to escape or oxygen is added, until its
mass ceases to change. The LOI is made of contributions from the volatile compounds of H2O+, OH-, CO2, F-,
Cl-, S; in parts also K+ and Na+ (if heated for too long); or alternatively added compounds O2 (oxidation, e.g. FeO
to Fe2O3), later CO2 (CaO to CaCO3). In pyro-processing and the mineral industries such as lime, calcined
bauxite, refractories or cement manufacturing industry, the loss on ignition of the raw material is roughly
equivalent to the loss in mass that it will undergo in a kiln, furnace or smelter.
3.4 Mineralogical analysis
Pulverised shale samples were analysed for mineralogical composition by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. A
Philips PANalytical instrument with a pw 3830 X-ray generator operated at 40 kV and 25 mA was used. The
pulverised samples were oven dried at 100 °C for 12 h to remove the adsorbed water. The samples were pressed
into rectangular aluminium sample holders using an alcohol wiped spatula and then clipped into the instrument
sample holder. The samples were step-scanned from 5 to 85 degrees on 2 theta scale at intervals of 0.02 and
counted for 0.5 sec per step.
3.5 pH of the interstitial pore water of the shales
The pH of interstitial/pore water was determined using 1:10 shale: water ratio. Ten grams of each of the shale
samples were weighed and put in a beaker and suspended in 100 ml of ultra pure water. The mixture was then
agitated thoroughly for 30 min, and allowed to settle for 15 min. The pH, EC, TDS and Eh of the supernatant
were recorded. The filterate was analyzed for anions using ion chromatography and cations using inductive
coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Triplicate analysis was carried out in each case.
3.6 Data treatment and multivariate statistical methods
Multivariate statistical method was applied on the bulk chemical data obtained from the XRF analysis of the
studied shale samples using SPSS-17.0 statistical software. Varimax rotated factor analysis was performed on
correlation matrix of the reorganized data of the samples. The variance, cumulative, and extraction sums of
square loadings of the variables with Eigen-values were computed. Rotation of the axis defined by factor
analysis produced a new set of factors, each one involving primarily a sub-set of the original variables with a
little overlap as possible, so that the original variables were divided into groups.
The factor analysis of these data set was further sorted by the contribution of the less significant variables (< 0.4
factor score). A varimax rotation (raw) of the different varifactors of eigen-value greater than 1, were further
cleaned up by this technique and in varifactors original variables participated more clearly. Liu et al. (2003a)
classified the factor loading as “strong”, “moderate”, and “weak”, corresponding to absolute loading values of >
0.75, 0.75–0.50, and 0.50–0.40, respectively. Factor and cluster analyses were combined to assess the degree of
major component matrix dissolution and determination of chemical processes. Hierarchical agglomerative
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4. Journal of Natural Sciences Research
ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)
Vol.3, No.10, 2013
www.iiste.org
clustering was performed on data normalized to z scores and unit variance using squared Euclidean distances as
the measure of similarity (Massart et al., 1988). Wards method was selected because it possesses a small space
distorting effect, uses more information on cluster contents than other methods (Helena et al., 1999), and has
been proven to be an extremely powerful grouping mechanism (Willet, 1987). This multivariate statistical
approach enables the description of the best discriminatory parameters of the studied shale units on the basis of a
simultaneous approach of geochemical and mineralogical data.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Lithological description
In the outcrop section, on the Auchi-Igarra road (Figure 2 & 3) the argillaceous units are not well exposed. The
approximately 1.6m thick sequence exposed along Auchi-Igarra road (Figure 2 & 3) consists predominantly of
shales and mudstones. At the basal part of the section is prominent shale bed with an average thickness of 0.2m,
it is dark greyish with brownish specs, fine grained in texture, highly fissile with tracks. The shale unit within
depth interval of 0.4-1.0m is dark greyish coloured with brownish specs, fine grained in texture which are
rhythmically interbedded with concretional to massive, bioturbated mudstones. The upper part of the outcrop
section (1.2-1.6m) is light greyish, brownish with reddish brown specs. The shales are fine grained, mixed with
clay and mudstones and contains abundant woody fragments and plant remains. The argillaceous sediments
(shales and mudstones) in this section are interpreted to have been deposited in a low-energy setting, probably in
a restricted body of water (Braide, 1992). The abundance of land derived woody and plant materials suggest
freshwater conditions (Obaje et al., 2011). The fine-grained argillaceous sediments and sandstones in the upper
part of the section are interpreted as shelf or flood plain deposits (Garrels and Makenzie, 1971).
4.2. Mineralogical composition
The mineral composition of the shale samples are predominantly characterized by quartz and kaolinite, which
were found in all samples. X-Ray diffraction analyses show little mineralogical variation between shale samples
within geochemically specific intervals. The first interval is from 0.0 to 0.2m depth. It is characterized by the
presence of quartz and kaolinite as the major crystalline minerals with minor quantities of hematite (Figure 4a).
The second geochemically specific interval is at the depth of 0.6 - 2m, and is characterised by quartz and
kaolinite as major crystalline minerals with minor quantities of halloysite and grossite (Figure 4b). Kaolinites are
indicators for its detrital origin in continental sediments (Kassim, 2006). Furthermore, Weaver (1960) stated that
kaolinite is dominant in sediments of fluviatile environments.
Kaolinite is known to be concentrated in many near-shore sediments and to decrease in abundance with distance
from the shoreline as other clay minerals increase (Parham, 1966). Robert and Kennett (1994) reported that
increased kaolinite contents in marine sediments resulted either from increased runoff, which could be caused by
sea level falls, or from increased rainfall. Kaolinite is formed under a good drainage system where the water
travel distance was much greater, less rapid flushing of sediments and less removal of silica (Berner and Berner,
1996). Halloysite, which consists of a poorly ordered arrangement of kaolinite-like units, with variable amounts
of water between the layers, generally between 0.6 to 4H2O per formula unit, and often with a tabular form.
Hematite is the oxidation products of weathered ferrous minerals and constitutes a major source of detrital iron
in sediments. During diagenesis limonite may be dehydrated to hematite. In order for this to happen, the original
sediment would have to be relatively free from decomposable organic matter so a high enough
oxidation/reduction potential (Eh) can be maintained to stabilize hematite. As a result, organic matter is
generally abundant in marine sediments; almost all hematite are non marine (Berner, 1971). Consequently, the
presence of hematite in the bottom layers of the shale sequence suggest non marine environment of deposition.
4.3. pH, EC and Eh of interstitial pore water
The mean pH measured in the Maastrichtian shales was 6.3, and range of variation was 5.9 - 8.1 (Table 2). A
simple correlation analysis revealed that the pH values were very closely correlated with electrical conductivities
(EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), Ca, Mg, Na, K and F. The inverse correlation between Eh and pH, EC and
TDS in the samples suggests well oxygenated environment of deposition. Similarly, Eh showed inverse
correlation with Ca, Mg, Na, K and F (Table 2).
4.4. Major and trace elements characteristics and provenance
Marine shales and mud rocks can be regarded as an admixture of three end-member oxides: SiO2 (detrital quartz
and/or biogenic silica), Al2O3 (clay fraction) and CaO (carbonate content) (Ross and Bustin, 2009). The ternary
plot of the major elements indicate that majority of the shale samples examined are enriched with SiO2 relative
to Al2O3 and CaO (Fig. 5).
The studied shale samples show high content of SiO2 with small variations (~51.83 – 92.00) (Table 3). The
Al2O3 content shows low concentrations with large variations (~3.42 – 26.46). Aluminium concentration is a
reasonably good measure of detrital flux (Nagarajan, 2007), the positive correlations of K2O, TiO2, and Na2O,
with Al2O3 (linear correlation coefficient r = 0.98, 0.79, and 0.14, respectively, number of samples (n) = 10)
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indicate that these elements are associated entirely with detrital phases. Some trace elements such as Cr, Ni, and
V are positively correlated with Al2O3 (r = 0.155, r = 0.009, and r = 0.043 respectively) which suggest that these
elements may be bound in clay minerals and concentrated during weathering ( Fedo et al., 1996; Nagarajan et al.,
2007).
The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio of the studied shale samples is shown in the Table 3. Felix (1977) established that the
SiO2/Al2O3 ratio for pure montmorillonite ranges from 2.80 to 3.31 while for pure kaolinite it is about 1.18. The
SiO2/Al2O3 ratio for these shale samples varies between (1.96 and 26.95) which are higher than that of pure
kaolinite and montmorillonite. Perhaps, this indicates that the clay mineralogy of the studied shale samples
consists mainly kaolinite and/or a mixture of kaolinite and halloysite. This is confirmed by mineralogical
analysis results (Figure 4b).
The K2O/Al2O3 ratio of sediments can be used as an indicator of the original composition of ancient sediments.
The K2O/Al2O3 ratios for clay minerals and feldspars are different (0.0 to 0.3, 0.3 to 0.9, respectively; Cox et al.,
1995). The K2O/Al2O3 ratios vary from 0.04 – 0.05 in the studied shale samples (Table 3). In most of the shale
samples, the K2O/Al2O3 ratios are close to the lower limit of clay mineral range, which suggests that kaolinite is
the dominant clay minerals in these samples as revealed by XRD spectra analysis (Figure 4). The abundance of
Si, Al, Ti and K in shales may be perturbed from parent material by weathering, transport and depositional
processes (Nesbitt et al. 1980). According to Gill and Yemane (1996) the Na2O/K2O ratios indicate salinization
by intense weathering or extreme leaching. The studied shale samples show low Na2O/K2O ratios (Table 3),
which indicate no evidence of salinization.
The geochemical signatures of clastic sediments have been used to find out the provenance characteristics
(Condie et al., 1992; Cullers, 1995; Madhavaraju and Ramasamy, 2002; Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2004;
Nagarajan, 2007). Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of most clastic rocks are essentially used to infer the source rock
compositions, because the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio increases from 3 to 8 for mafic igneous rocks, from 8 to 21 for
intermediate rocks, and from 21 to 70 for felsic igneous rocks (Hayashi et al., 1997). In the studied shale samples,
the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio ranges from 11.96 - 24.06 (Table 3).
Accordingly, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratios suggest that intermediate to felsic granitoid rocks must be the probable
source rocks for the shale samples in the present study. The abundance of Cr and Ni in siliciclastic sediments are
considered as a useful indicator in provenance studies. According to Wrafter and Graham (1989) a low
concentration of Cr indicates a felsic provenance, and high contents of Cr and Ni are mainly found in sediments
derived from ultramafic rocks (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2004). Chromium and nickel concentrations are low in
the studied shale samples (Table 3). Consequently, the low Cr/Ni ratios (i.e. 3.76 – 27) indicate that felsic
components were the main components among the basement complex source rocks. Ratios such as La/Sc, Th/Sc,
Th/Co, and Th/Cr are significantly different in felsic and basic rocks and may allow constraints on the average
provenance composition (Wronkiewicz and Condie, 1990; Cox et al., 1995; Cullers, 1995). The ratios of Th/Cr
(~0.036 – 0.09), Cr/Th (~8.1 – 14.15), Th/Co (~0.006 – 0.68) and Th/Cr (~0.036 – 0.09) suggests that the shale
samples in the present study were derived from felsic source rocks (Cullers, 1994; 2000; Nagarajan, 2007).
The chemical index of alteration (CIA) defined as CIA = 100 x Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO + Na2O + K2O) have been
established as a general indicator of the degree of weathering in any source regions (Nesbitt and Young, 1982;
Fedo et al., 1995). In the equation, CaO* is the amount of CaO incorporated in the silicate fraction of the studied
shale samples. Correction for CaO from carbonate contribution was not done for the studied shale samples since
there was no CO2 data. Thus, to compute for CaO* from the silicate fraction, the assumption proposed by Bock
et al. (1998) was adopted. In this regard, CaO values were accepted only if CaO ≤ Na2O; consequently, when
CaO >Na2O, it was assumed that the concentration of CaO equals that of Na2O (Bock et al., 1998). However,
only one brownish coloured shale sample (C2.0m) showed CaO contents higher than Na2O. High values (i.e.76100) indicate intensive chemical weathering at the source area whereas low values (i.e., 50 or less) indicate
unweathered source areas. The CIA values (Table 3) indicate that the studied shale samples have experienced
strong chemical weathering (CIA > 90) at the source area. In addition, the depletion of Na and Ca illustrates an
intense chemical weathering of the source rocks. As Al2O3, CaO, Na2O and K2O are related with CIA, they
reveal variations between the investigated samples reflecting variable climatic zones or rates of tectonic uplift in
source areas. The mineralogical index of alteration indicates the degree of weathering for each analysed sample,
independent of the depth of sampling. The calculation of the mineralogical index of alteration (MIA), according
to Voicu et al., (1997) is: MIA = 2*(CIA-50).
These ranges of MIA values indicate incipient (0-20%), weak (20-40%), moderate (40-60%), and intense to
extreme (60-100%) weathering. The value of 100 % means complete weathering of a primary material into its
equivalent weathered product (Voicu and Bardoux, 2002). The MIA value of the studied shale samples range
from 83.49 – 90.03 (Table 2), therefore indicating an intense to extreme weathering of the mineralogical
components of the source rock.
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4.5. Paleo-redox conditions and trace element enrichments
Some trace element ratios such as Ni/Co, V/Cr, Cu/Zn and U/Th have been used to evaluate paleoredox
conditions (Hallberg, 1976; Jones and Manning, 1994). The ratio of uranium to thorium may be used as a redox
indicator with U/Th ratio being higher in organic rich mudstones (Jones and Manning, 1994). U/Th ratios below
1.25 suggest oxic conditions of deposition, whereas values above 1.25 indicate suboxic and anoxic conditions
(Jones and Manning, 1994; Nath et al., 1997). The present study shows low U/Th ratio (~0.13), which indicate
that these shale samples were deposited in an oxic environment. A few numbers of authors have used V/Cr ratio
as an index of paleooxygenation (Dill, 1986; Dill et al., 1988; Nagarajan, 2007). Bjorlykke (1974) reported the
incorporation of Cr in the detrital fraction of sediments and its possible substitution for Al in the clay structure.
Vanadium may be bound to organic matter by the incorporation of V4+ into porphyrins, and is generally found in
sediments deposited in reducing environments (Shaw et al., 1990). According to Jones and Manning (1994), the
V/Cr ratios above 2 indicate anoxic conditions, whereas values below 2 suggest more oxidizing conditions. In
the present study, the V/Cr ratios of all the shale samples vary between 1.01 and 1.91, which indicates that they
were deposited in an oxic depositional environment.
Several authors have used the Ni/Co ratios as a redox indicator (Dypvik, 1984; Dill, 1986; Nagarajan, 2007)
Jones and Manning (1994) showed that the Ni/Co ratios below 5 indicate oxic environments, whereas ratios
above 5 suggest suboxic and anoxic environments. The Ni/Co ratios in this study vary between 0.11-1.04 (Table
2) suggesting that these shale samples were deposited in a well oxygenated environment. The Cu/Zn ratio is also
used as a redox parameter (Hallberg, 1976). According to Hallberg (1976) high Cu/Zn ratios indicate reducing
depositional conditions, while low Cu/Zn ratios suggest oxidizing conditions. Therefore, the low Cu/Zn ratios in
the studied shale samples (Table 3) indicate that they were deposited under oxidizing conditions.
The enrichment factors (EF) were determined by normalizing each trace element to Al, which is understood to
suggest the detrital influx, and comparing these ratios to those of normal shale. The enrichment factor (EF) is
equal to (Element/Al) / (Element/Al) shale, where the ratio in the numerator is that for the shale in question, and
the ratio in the denominator is that for a‘‘typical’’ shale (using data from Wedepohl, 1971). This approach has
been used by several authors to evaluate trace-element enrichments in modern and ancient sediments (e.g.,
Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Arnaboldi and Meyers, 2003; Rimmer, 2004). The trace elements data in the studied
shale samples show different levels of enrichment (Table 4).
Based on enrichment factor (EF) values, the magnitude of enrichment differs, with Co (~0.06-41.82) and Pb
(~0.61-30.05) peaked at the bottom in the shale sequence. The enrichment factor levels of Ni (~0.07-5.49) and Zr
(~0.33-3.59) peaked at the thickness of 0.8m and bottom respectively. The enrichment factor levels of Cu
(~0.11-2.05) and (~0.21-1.60) show maxima at 0.4m and 0.2m thickness respectively in the shale sequence.
Enrichment factor values of V (~0.43-1.55) and Cr (~0.71-1.52) has the highest magnitude levels at the bottom
in the shale sequence. The enrichment factor levels of Ba (~0.28-1.31) and Zn (~0.18-1.30) peaked at 0.60m
thickness in the shale sequence. The enrichment factor levels of Sr (~0.22-1.19) and U (~0.00-0.46) show
maxima at 0.6m and 0.2m thickness respectively in the shale sequence. The estimated order of enrichment
relative to typical shale is Co > Pb > Ni > Zr > Cu > Rb > V > Cr > Ba > V > Sr > U (Table 4).
4.6. Factor analysis of the geochemical data
The varimax rotated factor loadings matrix and communalities were obtained from principal component analysis
(PCA). PCA is a statistical tool used to assess metal behaviour in earth materials (Liu et al., 2003b). The PCA is
applied to detect the concealed structure and associations of elements in the data set, in an attempt to explain the
influence of latent factors on the data distribution (Simeonov et al., 2000; Krishna et al., 2011). Factor analysis
had been used to identify the parameters that control trace metal distributions in the Mejillones Bay surface
sediments (Loring, 1991; Selvaraj et al., 2004).
Table 5 shows Varimax rotated factor matrix results. Five components explained 95.85 % of the total variance in
the 10 shale samples analysed. Component 1 accounts for 47.38 % of the total variance and group rare elements,
MnO and all the trace elements except Co, P and U. This possibly indicates organic flux through the hydraulic
transport is an efficient mechanism for non- detrital metal in the studied shale samples. The second component
represents 22.37 % of the total variance and comprises of Co and all the major elements except SiO2, CaO and
Fe2O3. The strong association of these major elements indicates some degree of continental influence, especially
kaolinite and halloysite minerals which were present at the bottom of shale sequence (Figure 3). The third
component accounts for 13.38 % of the total variance and show association of CaO, Fe2O3, Na2O, SiO2, P2O5, P
and Pb. This suggests the calcification of the shale sequence within the column of the ocean leading to the
formation of grossite. The fourth component represents 6.99 % of the total variance and consists of SiO2, Ni, Sr
and P indicating the presence of detrital minerals such as quartz in the shale samples.
The fifth component represents 1.89 % of the total variance and comprises of Fe2O3, Na2O, CaO and U. This
indicates the presence of hematite minerals at the bottom of the shale sequence as revealed by XRD spectra
results (Figure 4). This agrees with enrichment factor and paleo-redox indicators results that suggest oxidizing
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environment of deposition.
5. Summary and conclusions
Based on the analysis of mineralogy and geochemical paleo-redox indicators for the Maastrichtian shales of
Mamu Formation, southern Nigeria, the following conclusions may be drawn:
1. The basal part of the shale outcrop is characterized by quartz and kaolinite as the major crystalline minerals
with traces of hematite. Similarly, the upper part consists of quartz and kaolinite as major crystalline minerals
but with minor quantity of halloysite and grossite. The presence of hematite in the basal part of the shale outcrop
suggests oxidizing diagenetic environment of deposition.
2. The ternary plot of the major elements shows that the shales are variably enriched with SiO2 relative to Al2O3
and CaO. The positive correlations of K2O, TiO2, and Na2O, with Al2O3 suggest that these elements are
associated entirely with detrital phases.
3. The K2O/Al2O3 ratio is close to the lower limit of clay mineral range, which suggests that kaolinite is the
dominant clay minerals. The geochemical parameters such as Al2O3/TiO2, low Cr/Ni, Th/Cr, Cr/Th, Th/Co and
Th/Cr ratios suggest that felsic components dominated basement complex source rocks.
4. The CIA values indicate that these shales have experienced strong chemical weathering at the source area. In
addition, the depletion of Na and Ca also illustrates an intense chemical weathering of the source rocks. The
MIA values of the studied shale samples indicate an intense to extreme weathering of the mineralogical
components.
5. The studied shales exhibit different degrees of trace-element enrichment, with the approximate order of
enrichment relative to average shale being in the order: Co > Pb > Ni > Zr > Cu > Rb > V > Cr > Ba > V > Sr >
U. The inverse correlation between changes in the oxidation state of the environment (Eh), pH, EC and TDS in
studied shales may indicate oxygenated environment of deposition. Furthermore, the trace element redox indices
ratios such as V/Cr, Ni/Co, Cu/Zn and U/Th infer that these shales were deposited under oxidizing diagenetic
environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely acknowledge the technical assistance of the final year students who participated in the
fieldwork (Sedimentary/Petroleum geology option 2011/2012 session). We wish to express our gratitude to Dr
Remy Bucher, iTHEMBA labs, South Africa for XRD analysis, Ms. Melissa Crowley, XRF laboratory in the
University of the Western Cape, South Africa for XRF analysis, and Ms. Riana Rossouw, LA-ICP-MS
laboratory in the University of Stellenbosch for multi-element analysis.
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Figure 1. Geological sketch map of the Anambra Basin, Nigeria.
Figure 2. Maastrichtian shale facies of Mamu Formation exposed at Auchi-Igarra Road.
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Figure 3. Lithologic section of Maastrichtian shale outcrop at Auchi-Igarra Road, Nigeria.
59
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0921
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Figure 4. Characteristic X-ray diffraction spectra of shale samples from (a) first geochemically specific interval
ray
(i.e. 0.0 -0.2 m) and (b) second geochemically specific interval (i.e. 0.6 – 2m).
0.2
60
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Figure 5. Ternary diagram showing relative proportions of shale/mudrock major elements SiO2 (quartz), Al2O3
(clays) and CaO (carbonates). Average shale also shown as checked box (after Wedepohl, 1971).
Table 1. Correlation Chart for Early Cretaceous-Tertiary strata in southeastern Nigeria (modified from Nwajide,
1990).
Table 2. Pearson’s coefficient correlations for all geochemical parameters measured in extracted interstitial pore
water of the Cretaceous shales
pH
Ec
TDS
Eh
Ca
Mg
Na
K
F
Cl
pH
1
0.85
Ec
1
0.85
0.99
TDS
1
Eh
-0.83
-0.86
-0.861
1
Ca
0.93
0.96
0.96
-0.84
1
Mg
0.94
0.95
0.95
-0.81
0.99
1
0.41
0.29
0.29
0.37
0.45
Na
-0.21
1
0.75
0.77
0.77
0.80
0.86
0.81
K
-0.61
1
0.85
0.90
0.90
0.93
0.93
0.57
0.88
F
-0.84
1
0.92
0.60
0.34
Cl
0.07
0.04
0.04
0.00
0.08
0.15
1
Significant values (p < 0.05) are shown in bold.
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Table 3. Major elements (wt %), trace elements (mg/kg) and element ratios in the studied shales
Sample name Average shale
Al2O3
16.7
CaO
2.20
Cr2O3
nd
C 0.0m
3.42
0.08
0.00
C 0.2m
19.56
0.02
0.02
Major elements (wt %)
C 0.4m C 0.6m C 0.8m
21.49
14.82
26.46
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.03
C 1.0m
23.25
0.02
0.02
C 1.4m
24.86
0.04
0.02
C 1.6m
20.01
0.04
0.02
C 1.8m
nd
nd
nd
C 2.0m
24.22
0.07
0.02
Fe2O3
6.90
3.15
3.56
1.55
2.75
2.26
1.62
1.94
1.46
nd
1.67
K2O
MgO
MnO
Na2O
3.60
2.60
nd
1.60
0.15
0.10
0.00
0.08
1.00
0.25
0.01
0.10
1.07
0.27
0.01
0.06
0.74
0.20
0.01
0.08
1.41
0.35
0.01
0.07
1.00
0.22
0.01
0.06
1.20
0.29
0.01
0.06
0.97
0.22
0.00
0.05
nd
nd
nd
1.20
0.30
0.00
0.05
P2O5
0.10
0.11
0.09
0.10
0.17
0.07
0.12
0.08
nd
0.07
SiO2
nd
58.9
92.20
63.62
62.48
72.77
51.83
61.22
56.52
64.49
nd
58.27
TiO2
LOI
Sum Of Conc.
0.78
nd
nd
0.29
1.81
101.37
1.42
10.79
100.45
1.55
11.52
100.56
1.33
13.84
100.23
1.61
10.45
99.39
nd
nd
nd
1.41
12.70
99.97
C 1.0m
9
12
29
28
54
92
51
350
31
152
17
nd
10844
247
168
25
272
78
190
75
311
C 1.4m
28
9
23
26
53
100
53
397
30
152
20
nd
10787
242
127
45
267
93
245
100
382
C 1.6m
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
C 1.8m
34
12
25
24
54
101
55
380
32
152
19
0.00
11278
253
140
39
271
92
215
99
403
C 1.4m
95.01
90.03
2.27
C 1.6m
95.01
90.01
3.22
C 1.8m
nd
nd
nd
C 2.0m
95.10
90.21
2.41
1.57
1.09
1.10
11.15
7.92
16.16
99.77
100.53
99.90
Trace elements (mg/kg)
C 0.2m C 0.4m C 0.6m C 0.8m
8
6
5
49
8
18
13
14
35
29
26
35
25
28
24
34
55
59
46
79
100
106
87
155
50
56
48
56
355
424
401
234
28
30
30
24
151
154
149
163
16
20
16
13
2.00
nd
nd
nd
10495
10970
10812
8089
235
248
239
185
144
162
135
184
51
36
47
47
233
274
247
346
63
71
71
89
203
212
133
210
73
84
60
97
520
480
311
720
Major and trace elements ratios
C 0.4m C 0.6m C 0.8m
C 1.0m
94.95
94.54
94.53
95.57
89.89
89.08
89.06
91.14
2.91
4.91
1.96
2.63
nd
Sample name Average shale
Ni
68
Cu
45
Zn
95
nd
Ga
Rb
140
Sr
300
nd
Y
Zr
160
nd
Nb
Pb
22
nd
Th
U
3.7
nd
Ti
V
130
Cr
90
Co
19
Ba
580
nd
La
nd
Ce
nd
Nd
P
nd
C 0.0m
0.00
1
19
4
6
24
8
117
7
136
1.00
nd
1991
42
28
159
34
13
11
15
639
Sample name
CIA
MIA
SiO2/Al2O3
C 0.0m
91.75
83.49
26.95
C 0.2m
94.60
89.20
3.25
Na2O/K2O
0.51
0.10
0.06
0.11
0.05
0.06
0.05
0.05
nd
K2O/Al2O3
0.04
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.05
nd
0.05
Al2O3/TiO2
Ni/Co
V/Cr
U/Th
Cr/Ni
Cr/Th
Th/Co
Th/Cr
Cu/Zn
11.96
n.d
1.50
nd
nd
28
0.006
0.036
0.053
13.74
0.36
1.47
nd
18
9
0.31
0.11
0.23
13.71
0.16
1.63
13.57
0.17
1.53
nd
27
8.44
0.34
0.12
0.50
24.06
0.11
1.77
nd
3.76
14.15
0.28
0.07
0.4
14.96
1.04
1.01
nd
18.67
9.88
0.68
0.10
0.41
18.73
0.62
1.91
nd
4.54
6.35
0.44
0.16
0.39
12.46
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
0.87
1.81
nd
4.12
7.37
0.49
0.14
0.48
17.19
0.18
1.39
nd
23.00
11.50
0.35
0.09
0.46
0.13
27
8.1
0.56
0.12
0.62
Average shale data from Wedepohl (1971, 1991); Brumsack, 2006.
62
0.04
C 2.0m
7
12
26
32
66
96
53
302
28
149
14
0.00
10009
223
161
40
268
78
228
97
288
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Table 4. Enrichment factors for some selected trace elements in the studied shale samples
a
b
Element
Average shale C 0.0 m
Ni (ppm)
68
0.00
(Ni/Al)*104
7.7
0.00
EF
0.00
Co (ppm)
19
159
(Co/Al)*104
2.1
87.82
EF
41.82
Cu (ppm)
45
1
(Cu/Al)*104
5.1
0.55
EF
0.11
Zn (ppm)
95
19
(Zn/Al)*104
11
10.49
EF
0.95
V (ppm)
130
42
(V/Al)*104
15
23.20
EF
1.55
Cr (ppm)
90
28
(Cr/Al)*104
10.2
15.47
EF
1.52
Ba (ppm)
580
34
(Ba/Al)*104
66
18.78
EF
0.28
Rb (ppm)
140
6
(Rb/Al)*104
16
3.31
EF
0.21
Sr (ppm)
300
24
(Sr/Al)*104
34
13.26
EF
0.39
Zr (ppm)
160
117
(Zr/Al)*104
18
64.62
EF
3.59
Pb (ppm)
22
136
(Pb/Al)*104
2.5
75.12
EF
30.05
U (ppm)
3.7
0.00
(U/Al)*104
0.42
0.00
EF
0.00
C 0.2 m C 0.4 m
8
6
C 0.6 m C 0.8 m
5
49
C 1.0 m
9
C 1.4 m
28
C 1.6 m
0.00
C 1.8 m
34
C2m
7
0.77
0.10
51
0.53
0.68
36
0.64
1.21
47
3.50
5.49
47
0.73
0.21
25
2.13
2.91
45
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
39
0.55
0.07
40
4.93
0.06
8
3.16
0.64
18
5.99
1.89
13
3.36
0.56
14
2.03
0.61
12
3.42
1.68
9
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
12
3.12
1.49
12
0.77
1.40
35
1.58
2.05
29
1.66
1.05
26
1.00
0.60
35
0.98
0.98
29
0.68
0.70
23
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
25
0.94
0.18
26
3.38
0.32
235
2.55
0.75
248
3.31
1.30
239
2.50
0.75
185
2.36
0.94
247
1.75
0.74
242
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
253
2.03
0.18
223
22.70
0.98
144
21.80
0.96
162
30.46
1.40
135
13.21
0.43
184
20.07
1.52
168
18.39
0.92
127
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
140
17.39
1.16
161
13.91
0.90
233
14.24
1.02
274
17.20
1.21
247
13.14
0.76
346
13.65
1.04
272
9.65
0.71
267
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
271
12.56
1.23
268
22.50
1.20
55
5.31
1.60
100
9.66
0.73
355
34.29
0.53
151
14.58
0.19
2.00
24.08
1.07
59
5.19
0.98
106
9.32
0.96
424
37.27
1.09
154
13.54
0.93
0.00
31.48
1.31
46
5.86
1.13
87
11.09
1.19
401
51.10
1.37
149
18.99
1.40
0.00
24.70
0.78
79
5.64
0.96
155
11.07
1.00
234
16.71
0.33
163
11.64
0.61
0.00
22.10
0.89
54
4.39
0.78
92
7.48
0.68
350
28.44
1.70
152
12.35
1.06
0.00
20.29
0.92
53
4.03
0.92
100
7.60
1.02
397
30.18
1.06
152
11.55
0.94
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
54
0.00
0.00
101
0.00
0.00
380
0.00
0.00
152
0.00
0.00
0.00
20.90
0.32
66
5.15
0.32
96
7.49
0.22
302
23.55
1.31
149
11.62
4.65
0.00
0.19
0.46
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Calculated average shale data (Wedepohl , 1971, 1991; Rimmer, 2004; Brumsack, 2006. Nagarajan et al., 2007).
Mean Al content for average shale: 8.84% (Wedepohl, 1971).
63
17. Journal of Natural Sciences Research
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Table 5. Varimax Rotated Factor Loadings Matrix and Communalities Obtained from Principal Component
Analysis for the Studied Major, Trace and Rare earth Elements in the shale samples
Variables Comp. 1 Comp. 2 Comp. 3 Comp. 4 Comp.5
Communalities
MnO
0.54
0.52
0.43
0.79
K2O
0.98
0.99
Cr2O3
0.98
0.99
Al2O3
0.98
0.99
LOI
MgO
TiO2
0.97
0.95
0.89
0.99
0.99
0.98
P2O5
0.66
Fe2O3
0.93
0.83
Na2O
0.41
SiO2
CaO
Ni
Co
V
Cr
Cu
Zn
Pb
Rb
Sr
Ba
Nb
P
Ti
Y
Th
Zr
U
La
Ga
Nd
Ce
EV
VAR (%)
CVAR (%)
0.65
0.40
0.96
0.73
0.44
0.99
0.70
-0.50
0.67
0.41
0.99
-0.55
0.88
-0.53
0.98
0.94
0.90
0.85
0.88
0.89
0.86
0.93
0.98
0.80
0.42
0.42
0.72
0.49
0.97
0.97
0.94
0.94
0.89
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.91
15.64
47.38
47.38
7.38
22.37
69.75
4.42
13.38
83.13
64
2.31
6.99
90.13
1.89
5.72
95.85
0.90
0.95
0.96
0.99
0.96
0.86
0.95
0.99
0.97
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.93
0.99
0.99
0.96
0.96
0.84
0.97
0.98
0.96
0.94
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