- The document discusses a math word problem involving the costs of drinks, burgers, and chips. - It explains the steps to solve the problem: understand the costs of each item, do the multiplication before addition, and get the answer of 15. - The objectives are to discuss Joseph Greenberg's Linguistic Universals, identify his 45 proposed linguistic universals, and examine hypotheses for the existence of linguistic universals.

6. To work out the answer, you firstly need to understand the cost of
each product.
From the first line, you can tell that each drink is worth 10, while on
the second line you can decipher that a burger is worth five.
On the third line – remembering that there is a total of four packet
of chips – you can see that each packet of chips is worth one.
Finally, applying the rule that multiplication comes before addition,
you can multiply the chips by the drink, totalling 10, before adding
the burger, giving the answer 15.
10+10+10 = 30
10+5+5 = 20
5+2+2 = 9
5+1×10 = 15

7. OBJECTIVES:
A.Discuss Joseph Greenberg
Linguistic Universals;
B.Identify the 45 Linguistic
Universals by Greenberg;
and
C.Determine the different
hypotheses about Linguistic
Universal.

10. English: The servant gave the horse
water.
Japanese: Shiyooni ga uma ni mizu wo ageta
servant NOM horse DAT water ACC gave

11. Arabic: ´act˛a1 l-kh a1dimu l-h˛is˛a1na ma1´an
gave the-servant-NOM the-horse- ACC
water-ACC

12. Fula: Suka hokkii puccu ndiyam.
servant gave horse water

13. •All three languages have
sentences that consist of
words with a pronunciation
and a meaning.

14. • In all three languages, the action
of giving is referred to with a
verb, while the servant, the horse
and the water are referred to
with nouns.

15. •The pronunciation of
words differ from one
language to another.
•The word order also
differ.

16. • It is a pattern that occurs
systematically across natural
languages, potentially true for all
of them.
• Properties shared by all languages

17. • Founding father of the
modern typology including
language/linguistic universals
• Also macro-comparative
studies of Africa and, less
mentioned, Papua New
Guinea

18. • “Some Universals of
Grammar with Particular
Reference to the Order of
Meaningful Elements”
• Investigated correlations
between features of word
order

19. • His work was always
founded on quantitative
data from a single
language or from a wide
range of languages.

20. • His chief legacy to
contemporary linguistics is
in the development of an
approach to the study of
language –typology and
universals- and to
historical linguistics.

21. • He also made major
contributions to
sociolinguistics,
psycholinguistics,
phonetics and phonology,
morphology, and
especially African language
studies.

22. • In 1963, His first work was on basic
word order from a typological
viewpoint
• he established a new type of universal
statement, the implicational universal
e.g. x  y (read: if the x exists, than
this implies the existence of y)
• Greenberg’s (45) implications are
unilateral!- x  y ≠ y  x

23. • basic word order at the clausal level
consists of three major parts: Subject
(S), Object (O) and Verb (V)
• basic word order can be found in
indicative transitive clauses
• basic word order = the ordering of
the 3 major constituents (S, O and V)

24. • statements that are true of all or
most known human languages
–all languages have vowels differing in
the height
• distributional patterns and
tendencies
–most languages belong either to SOV,
SVO or VSO type

25. 1.Absolute
2.Statistical

26. • It refers to properties
found in all languages.
• All languages have vowels
and consonants.

27. • It reflects important trends that are
found in a predominant part of the
languages of the world, but not
necessarily in all.
• Subjects tend strongly to precede
objects.

28. • Typology-a system for putting things into
groups according to how they are similar
• Unilateral-involving only in one group
• Genitive-relating to or denoting a case of
nouns and pronouns (and words in
grammatical agreement with them)
indicating possession or close
association.

29. • Postposition-the place of grammatical
element after a word to which it is
primarily related in a sentence
• Preposition-a function word that
typically combines a noun phrase to form
a phrase which usually expresses a
modification or predication

30. • Inflection-a change in the form of a word
that occurs when it has a particular use
• Derivation-the origin of a word, forming
a word from another word
• Allomorph-one of a set of forms that a
morpheme may take in different contexts
• >the –s in cats, the -en in oxen

31. In declarative sentences with
nominal subject and object,
the dominant order is almost
always one in which the
subject precedes the object.

32. Example:
A fiú kenyeret eszik. Poika syö
leipää.
‘The boy is eating bread.’ (SO)

33. • Universal 1 says that in
languages with nominal
subject and object the
ordering is SO.
• Referring to universal 1 one
has to say that OS order is
almost impossible.

34. • This means that the existence
of VOS, OVS and OSV
languages is almost
impossible.
• BUT: there are data opposed
to this universal

35. • AND: in universal 1 it is said that
the S almost always precedes the
O – this is not an exception less
universal
• It has been pointed out that the
number of VOS, OVS and OSV
languages is quite reduced (there
are about 4-8 OVS languages. cf.
WALS-World Atlas of Language Structures

37. In languages with prepositions,
the genitive almost always
follows the governing noun,
while in languages with
postpositions it almost always
precedes it.

38. Example:
a fa alatt/puun alla ‘under the
tree’; az anya lánya/äidin tytär
‘the girl of the mother’
(NPp&GN)

39. Languages with dominant VSO
order are always prepositional.

40. With overwhelmingly greater
than chance frequency,
languages with normal SOV
order are postpositional.

41. If a language has dominant SOV
order and the genitive follows
the governing noun, then the
adjective likewise follows the
noun.

42. All languages with dominant
VSO order have SVO as an
alternative or as the only
alternative basic order.

43. If in a language with dominant SOV
order, there is no alternative
basic order, or only OSV as the
alternative, then all adverbial
modifiers of the verb likewise
precede the verb. (This is the
rigid subtype of III.)

44. When a yes-no question is differentiated
from the corresponding assertion by an
intonational pattern, the distinctive
intonational features of each of these
patterns are reckoned from the end of
the sentence rather than from the
beginning.

45. With well more than chance frequency,
when question particles or affixes are
specified in position by reference to the
sentence as a whole, if initial, such
elements are found in prepositional
languages, and, if final, in postpositional.

46. Question particles or affixes, when
specified in position by reference to
a particular word in the sentence,
almost always follow that word. Such
particles do not occur in languages
with dominant order VSO

47. Inversion of statement order so that
verb precedes subject occurs only in
languages where the question word
or phrase is normally initial. This
same inversion occurs in yes-no
questions only if it also occurs in
interrogative word questions.

48. If a language has dominant order VSO
in declarative sentences, it always
puts interrogative words or phrases
first in interrogative word questions;
if it has dominant order SOV in
declarative sentences, there is never
such an invariant rule.

49. If the nominal object always precedes
the verb, then verb forms
subordinate to the main verb also
precede it.

50. In conditional statements, the
conditional clause precedes the
conclusion as the normal order in all
languages.

51. In expressions of volition and purpose,
a subordinate verbal form always
follows the main verb as the normal
order except in those languages in
which the nominal object always
precedes the verb.

52. In languages with dominant order
VSO, an inflected auxiliary always
precedes the main verb. In languages
with dominant order SOV, an
inflected auxiliary always follows the
main verb.

53. With overwhelmingly more than
chance frequency, languages with
dominant order VSO have the
adjective after the noun.

54. When the descriptive adjective
precedes the noun, the
demonstrative and the numeral, with
overwhelmingly more than chance
frequency, do likewise

55. When the general rule is that the
descriptive adjective follows, there
may be a minority of adjectives
which usually precede, but when the
general rule is that descriptive
adjectives precede, there are no
exceptions.

56. When any or all of the items
(demonstrative, numeral, and
descriptive adjective) precede the
noun, they are always found in that
order. If they follow, the order is
either the same or its exact opposite.

57. If some or all adverbs follow the
adjective they modify, then the
language is one in which the
qualifying adjective follows the noun
and the verb precedes its nominal
object as the dominant order.

58. If in comparisons of superiority the only
order, or one of the alternative orders, is
standard-marker-adjective, then the
language is postpositional. With
overwhelmingly more than chance
frequency if the only order is adjective-
marker-standard, the language is
prepositional.

59. If in apposition the proper noun usually
precedes the common noun, then the
language is one in which the governing noun
follows its dependent genitive. With much
better than chance frequency, if the common
noun usually precedes the proper noun, the
dependent genitive follows its governing
noun.

60. If the relative expression precedes the
noun either as the only construction
or as an alternate construction,
either the language is postpositional,
or the adjective precedes the noun,
or both.

61. If the pronominal object follows
the verb, so does the nominal
object.
Example:
Hungarian and Finnish are both suffixing
languages and the most frequently used
adposition types are postpositions.

62. If a language has discontinuous
affixes, it always has either
prefixing or suffixing or both.

63. If a language is exclusively
suffixing, it is postpositional; if
it is exclusively prefixing, it is
prepositional.

64. If both the derivation and
inflection follow the root, or they
both precede the root, the
derivation is always between the
root and the inflection.

65. If a language has inflection,
it always has derivation.

66. If the verb has categories of
person-number or if it has
categories of gender, it
always has tense-mode
categories.

67. If either the subject or
object noun agrees with
the verb in gender, then
the adjective always agrees
with the noun in gender.

68. Whenever the verb agrees
with a nominal subject or
nominal object in gender, it
also agrees in number.

69. When number agreement between
the noun and verb is suspended
and the rule is based on order,
the case is always one in which
the verb precedes and the verb is
in the singular.

70. No language has a trial number
unless it has a dual. No language
has a dual unless it has a plural.

71. There is no language in which the
plural does not have some nonzero
allomorphs, whereas there are
languages in which the singular is
expressed only by zero. The dual and
the trial are almost never expressed
only by zero.

72. If a language has the category of
gender, it always has the
category of number.

73. A language never has more
gender categories in
nonsingular numbers than in
the singular.

74. Where there is a case system, the
only case which ever has only
zero allomorphs is the one which
includes among its meanings that
of the subject of the intransitive
verb.

75. Where morphemes of both number
and case are present and both follow
or both precede the noun base, the
expression of number almost always
comes between the noun base and
the expression of case.

76. When the adjective follows the noun,
the adjective expresses all the
inflectional categories of the noun. In
such cases the noun may lack overt
expression of one or all of these
categories.

77. If in a language the verb follows both
the nominal subject and nominal
object as the dominant order, the
language almost always has a case
system.

78. All languages have pronominal
categories involving at least three
persons and two numbers.

79. If a language has gender categories
in the noun, it has gender
categories in the pronoun.

80. If a language has gender
distinctions in die first person, it
always has gender distinctions in
the second or third person, or in
both.

81. If there are any gender distinctions
in the plural of the pronoun,
there are some gender
distinctions in the singular also.

82. • Greenberg uses in his universals the following
words for instance: ‘always, almost always,
with overwhelmingly greater than chance
frequency’
• these expressions are meant to distinguish
different levels of language frequency
• this is a crucial point of the analyses, because
the number of exceptions that statistical
universals can accomodate must be limited.

83. Do you think that these
universal statements
exist in your native
language?
Examples?

84. 1.Monogenesis Hypothesis
2.Language Contact
Hypothesis
3.Innateness Hypothesis

85. • The idea that all languages
stem from the same
protolanguage and have
inherited the same universal
traits from this protolanguage.

86. • According to this hypothesis,
language have many things in
common because they are
constantly influenced by each
other.

87. • Example: few languages in which the
object usually precedes the subject
are mostly located in the
geographical periphery and have
traditionally had little contact with
other languages.

88. • This includes Austronesian island
languages Fijian and Malagasy
(VOS); a number of very small
languages along the tributaries of
the Amazon River in Brazil (OVS).

90. • Languages learn from each other and
the strong tendency for subjects to
recede objects may at least partly be
a result of language contact.

91. • The idea that our ability to use
language is a part of our genetic
endowment, and that genetics also
determines many details in the form
and structure of languages.

92. • We may be genetically
predisposed to distinguish
between vowels and consonants,
and to let subjects precede
objects.

93. • This also explains our ability to learn
and use language as an effect of an
innate grammar—a genetic program
specifically designed to determine
the development of our language
ability.

94. • Example: our speech organs are shaped
in a unique way that enable us to speak
the way we do (as opposed to apes, who
would not be able to pronounce the
sounds of human language even if they
wanted to.)

95. • Some language features are
universal because they make
linguistic utterances easier both
to produce and to interpret.
• All languages, obviously, have
both consonants and vowels.

96. • A language with only consonants would
be very difficult to hear, since consonants
are generally less sonorant than vowels.
• A language with only vowels, on the
other hand, would be unsatisfactory
because we are only able to distinguish a
very limited number of vowel qualities.

97. • Most lexical universals are approximate rather
than precise.
• For instance, it has often been said that all
languages have the concept of “black” and
“white” but this is only true in an approximate
sense.

98. • Another, an English speaker learning
Chinese will have to learn eight new
concepts for cousin while a Chinese
speaker learning English will have to
learn the general concept represented by
the English word cousin.

99. • Most lexical universals are also statistical and
absolute.
• The concept of water, for instance, is probably
found in most languages, but not in all.
• Japanese: mizu – cold water; o-yu – hot water
• Yimas language of New Guinea: arm - liquid

101. • The Norwegian word for carrot is
GULROT which translates as yellow root
while in Chinese it is called as HONG
LUOBO or red turnip. Since the color of
carrot is in between red or yellow, the
more appropriate color term would be
orange.

102. •Interjection
•Nouns
•Verbs

103. • All languages appear to have a
separate class of words
resembling English words like
wow, psst, mhm, and wham.

104. • All or at least nearly all languages of the world
also make a distinction between nouns and verbs.
• The prototypical noun refers to an entity (a
substance or an object), while the prototypical
verb refers to a process (dynamic or stative).
• In Chinese, the class of verbs also includes words
resembling English prepositions.
• Example: cut with a knife is rendered as using a
knife [to] cut.

105. • Also the same with Samoan,
the class of verbs also includes
words resembling English
numerals, so that two men is
rendered as man being-two.

106. • Some segmental phonemes
are universal, while others are
found in some languages and
not in others.

107. • No language is known for sure
to have less than three vowel
phonemes.
• No language is known for sure
to have more than 46 vowel
phonemes.

108. If there is a pattern that occurs systematically
across languages, we can therefore relate our
native language, Filipino, in teaching English as
a second language since students learn more
when they are able to relate or associate what
they are learning to something they already
knew or mastered.

109. In teaching the simple tenses of verb, we
can relate it to “aspeto ng pandiwa” in
Filipino. Although the grammatical rules
to follow are entirely different and
unique, it’s good to know that both
languages share commonality with which
students may be able to find it easier to
learn the language.

110. • Talking about linguistic universal
is distinguishing the differences
and features (structure, meaning,
word order, pronunciation) of the
world languages in order to know
what these languages have in
common.

111. Sources:
Bhatt, R. (1995). Verb movement in Kashmiri. In R. Izvorski and V. Tredinnick, Eds., U. Penn
Working Papers in Linguistics, vol. 2. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Department of Linguistics.
Mufwene, S. (1999). On the language bioprogram hypothesis: Hints from Tazie. In M. DeGraff, Ed.,
Language Creation and Language Change: Creolization, Diachrony, and Development.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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