This document provides an overview of lexical and grammatical categories in language. It discusses the categories of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, determiners, auxiliaries, coordinators, and complementizers. For each category, it provides examples and explanations of the syntactic and semantic properties that define the category and distinguish it from other categories. It also notes some exceptions and borderline cases between categories.
Derivational and inflectional morphemesDewi Maharani
Provide the explanation how words are formed by adding morpheme(s) and how the addition of morpheme affect the word (meaning or class). beside\s, this also provide the explanaton of kinds of derivational and inflectional mor[pheme
It is my PPt about Semantics and Pragmatics; it only ver basic information about it, but hopefully it will be useful for your educational process or useful as your reading resources. You can contact me if you have a suggestion, critique, or maybe we can discuss this topic further.
In linguistics, markedness refers to the way words are changed or added to give a special meaning. The unmarked choice is just the normal meaning. For example, the present tense is unmarked for English verbs. If I just say "walk" that refers to the present tense. But if we add something to "walk" (marking it), such as adding ‘ed’ to the end, I can indicate the past: "walked".
Different Levels of Stylistics Analysis 1.Phonological level 2.Graphologic...RajpootBhatti5
Levels of stylistics analysis
1.Phonological level
2.Graphological level
3.Grammatical level
Language of newspaper headlines
4.Pragmatics level
5.Conversation or discourse analysis
Presented
by
Ata ul ghafer & shoiba sabir
Department of Applied linguistics
GCUF
Derivational and inflectional morphemesDewi Maharani
Provide the explanation how words are formed by adding morpheme(s) and how the addition of morpheme affect the word (meaning or class). beside\s, this also provide the explanaton of kinds of derivational and inflectional mor[pheme
It is my PPt about Semantics and Pragmatics; it only ver basic information about it, but hopefully it will be useful for your educational process or useful as your reading resources. You can contact me if you have a suggestion, critique, or maybe we can discuss this topic further.
In linguistics, markedness refers to the way words are changed or added to give a special meaning. The unmarked choice is just the normal meaning. For example, the present tense is unmarked for English verbs. If I just say "walk" that refers to the present tense. But if we add something to "walk" (marking it), such as adding ‘ed’ to the end, I can indicate the past: "walked".
Different Levels of Stylistics Analysis 1.Phonological level 2.Graphologic...RajpootBhatti5
Levels of stylistics analysis
1.Phonological level
2.Graphological level
3.Grammatical level
Language of newspaper headlines
4.Pragmatics level
5.Conversation or discourse analysis
Presented
by
Ata ul ghafer & shoiba sabir
Department of Applied linguistics
GCUF
Here’s the most precise guide ever on what adjectives are, their usage, and placement. You’ll never make a mistake with using adjectives in your writing ever again.
Writing Elements A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usag.docxericbrooks84875
Writing Elements
A Quick Guide to Grammar and Usage
Timothy P. Goss and Sabrina M. Goss
1
Using this Guide
Before we get started, you should note that this guide is, in no way, a comprehensive exploration
of grammar and usage. Many guides are available that will provide a much richer and fuller
understanding of the components of language usage. Instead, this guide has been designed to
help you, in a quick and efficient way, avoid some of the more common errors people make in
their writing.
It is a good idea to review this entire guide several times until the information becomes second-
nature. Having a good grasp on the basic rules of grammar and usage will make a big difference
in how your writing will be received in your academic and professional careers. It may even help
your love life, but probably not really help you teach your dog how to say, “Fiddlesticks” (every
piece of writing has its limitations).
Enjoy this journey.
2
Table of Contents
Clarity and Style:
1. Parts of Speech 3
2. Verbs and Verbals 4
3. Commonly Misused Words 5
4. Point of View: First, Second, and Third Person 6
5. Past and Present Tenses 6
6. Clichés 7
7. Sexist Language 7
8. Slang/Jargon 8
Grammar:
1. Subject/Verb Agreement 8
2. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 9
3. Sentence Fragments 9
4. Run-On Sentences 10
Punctuation:
1. Commas 11
2. Semicolons 12
Mechanics:
1. Abbreviations 12
2. Numbers 12
General Advice 13
3
Parts of Speech
All words in the English language have a particular duty to perform in a sentence or clause.
These parts work in concert with one another to create meaning. We can look at the way words
work in a sentence by either their function or by their form or definition.
By Function:
1. Verbs: These words determine the action that is being related (all sentences/clauses must
do something).
2. Nouns and Pronouns: These words serve as the thing doing the action (subject), or the
thing having the action done to it (object).
3. Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs): These words describe another word to help
distinguish or clarify the meaning being related.
4. Prepositions: These words shows how one word or phrase relates to another
5. Articles: These words are connected to nouns and determine the vagueness of specificity
of the noun.
6. Conjunctions: These words join clauses together.
7. Interjections: These words serve to express strong emotion.
By Form or Definition:
1. Verb: An action word. For example: Speak, run, fight, asked, claimed, and rocked.
2. Noun: A part of speech that stands for a person, place, thing, or idea. For example:
Truck, house, loss, ring, air, and sandwich.
3. Pronoun: Takes the place of a noun. For example: I, he, she, we, i.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
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This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
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It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
4. Adverbs and Adjectives are semantically very
similar in that both modify another element,
i.e. they describe a quality of another word:
quick/ly, nice/ly, etc.
5. Adjectives and Adverbs
The main syntactic difference is:
An adjective modifies a noun;
An adverb modifies a verb, and (a degree
adverb) an adjective, or adverb.
6. Since an adjective modifies a noun, the quality it describes will
be those appropriate to a noun, e.g. nationality (American,
Dutch, Iranian), size (big, large, thin), color (red, yellow, blue),
or character trait (happy, fortunate, lovely, pleasant,
obnoxious).
Adverbs typically modify actions and will then provide
information typical of those, e.g. manner (wisely, fast), or
duration (frequently, often), or speaker attitude (fortunately).
When adverbs modify adjectives or other adverbs, they are
typically degree adverbs (very, so, too).Some instances of the
`correct' use of the adjective nice are given in (1) and (2) and
of the adverbs very and quickly in (3) and (4):
Adjectives and Adverbs
Source:
Arizona
State
University
Open
Source
7. Adjectives and Adverbs
1. The mug is nice.
2. A nice mug is on the table.
3. This porcelain mug is very precious.
4. He drove very quickly.
In (1) and (2), nice modifies the noun mug. In
(3), very modifies the adjective precious; and in (4), it
modifies the adverb quickly, which in its turn modifies the
verb drove.
8. An adverb is formed from an adjective by adding -ly, as in (4).
However, be careful with this morphological distinction: not all adverbs end in
-ly and some adjectives end in -ly.
Use it in a sentence to see what it modifies.
For instance, fast, hard, low are both adjectives and adverbs. In (5), fast is an
adjective because it modifies a noun, but in (6), it is an adverb since it modifies
a verb:
5. That fast car must be a police car.
6. That car drives fast.
9. Most adjectives and adverbs (if they are gradable) can be used to compare or
contrast two or more things. We call such forms the comparative (e.g. better
than) or superlative (e.g. the best).
One way to make these forms is to add -er/-est, as in nicer/nicest. Not all
adjectives/adverbs allow this ending, however; some need to be preceded by
more/most, as in more intelligent, most intelligent.
10. Adjectives Adverbs
Morphology a. no -ly in most cases
d. ends in -ly in many
cases (exceptions fast,
now)
Syntax b. modifies N
e. modifies V, Adj, or
Adv
Semantics
c. describe qualities
typical of nouns,
e.g. nationality, color,
size
f. describe qualities of
verbs etc., e.g. place,
manner, time, duration
11. Prepositions
Prepositions often express place or time (at, in,
on, before), direction (to, from, into, down), or
relation (of, about, with, like, as, near). They
are invariable in form.
In a sentence, they usually occur before a noun
(or Noun Phrase, see the next chapter), as (7)
shows, where the prepositions are in bold:
7. With their books about philosophy, they
went to school.
12. Preposition
On occasion, prepositions are used on their own, as in (8). In such cases,
they are often considered adverbs or particles. Infrequently, they are used
as verbs, as in (9):
8. He went in; they ran out; he jumped up.
9. They upped the price.
Some other examples of prepositions:
during, around, after, against, despite, except, without, towards, until, till,
inside
Sequences such as instead of, outside of, away from, due to and as for are
also seen as prepositions, even though they consist of two words.
14. The grammatical categories are:
Determiner, Auxiliary, Coordinator, and Complementiser.
It is hard to define grammatical categories in terms of meaning because they
have very little. Their function is to make the lexical categories fit together.
15. The determiner category includes the articles a(n) and the, as well as
demonstratives, possessive pronouns, possessive nouns, some quantifiers, and
some numerals.
So, determiner (or D) is an umbrella term for all of these.
Determiners occur with a noun to specify which noun is meant or whose it is.
There are four demonstratives in English: this, that, these, and those.
Possessive pronouns include my, your, his, her, its, our, and their, as in (10).
Nouns can be possessives as well, but in that case they have an -'s (or ')
ending, as in (11):
10. Their cat ate my food.
11. Luke's food was eaten by Pam.
Determiner
16. There is a special class of possessive pronouns that occurs on its own, namely
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs:
That book is not mine, but it is yours.
These pronouns appear when the noun they specify has been deleted. Thus, the
sentence above could be rewritten as:
That book is not my book, but it is your book.
17. Determiners as in (10) and (11) precede nouns just like adjectives, but whereas
a determiner points out which entity is meant (it specifies), an adjective
describes the quality (it modifies).
10. Their cat ate my food.
11. Luke's food was eaten by Pam.
When both a determiner and an adjective precede a noun, the determiner always
precedes the adjective, as in (12).
12. Their irritating cat ate my delicious food.
18. Quantifiers such as any, many, much, and all are usually considered
determiners, e.g. in much work, many people, and all research.
Some are used before the other determiners, namely, all, both, and half.
e.g. All the books; half that wealthy man's money; both those problems.
These quantifiers are called pre-determiners, and abbreviated Pre-D.
Finally, quantifiers are adjectival (e.g. the many problems)
13. The challenges are many/few.
Numerals are sometimes determiners, as in two hats, and sometimes more like
adjectives, as in my two hats.
19. Pre-D D Adj
quantifier
all, both, half
some, many, all, few,
any, much, every,
etc.
many, few
article
the, a
demonstrative that, this
possessive my, etc; NP's
numeral one, two, etc. one, two, etc.
In a table, the determiners can be listed as follows. Adjective is added to the table since
some of the words that are clear determiners can also be adjectives. The categories are not
always a 100% clear-cut:
20. The auxiliary functions to help another verb, but does not itself contribute greatly to
the meaning of the sentence.
Verbs such as have, be, and do can be full verbs, as in (13), or auxiliaries, as in
(14). In (14), have does not mean `possess' or `hold', but contributes to the
grammatical meaning of the sentence, namely past tense with present relevance.
The same is true for be in (15); it contributes to the grammatical meaning
emphasizing the continuous nature of the event:
13. I have a book in my hand.
14. I have worked here for 5 years.
15. Santa may be working on Thanksgiving Day.
Auxiliary
Source:
Arizona
State
University
Open
Source
21. Because auxiliaries help other verbs (except when they are main verbs as in (x),
they cannot occur on their own, as in the example below (which is
ungrammatical):
*I must X a book.
22. Coordinators such as and and or join two elements of the same kind, e.g. the
nouns in (16). They are also called coordinating conjunctions, but in this
course, we'll use coordinator.
Complementisers such as that, because, whether, if, and since are also called
subordinating conjunctions or subordinators. We will use complementiser.
They join two clauses where one clause is subordinate to the other as in (17):
16. Sally and Holmes went to Madrid and Barcelona.
17. Sally and Holmes left because Ruby was about to arrive.
Like prepositions, coordinators and complementisers are invariable, i.e. never
change, in English.
Coordinator and Complimentiser
23. There is a group of words, namely yet, however, nevertheless, therefore, and so,
as in (18), that connects one sentence to another:
18. You are late, so I will give you extra work today.
Some grammarians see these as complementisers; others see them as adverbs.
With the punctuation (comma) as in (18), the complementiser scenario is more
obvious since so connects the two sentences. So here means thus or therefore.
If so is used as very, it is a degree adverb. That’s the difference between so as a
complimentiser and as an adverb.