This lesson includes traditional plant nutrient supplementing, pest and disease control, and indigenous agricultural machines and tools. The 9th lesson part 2 taught to Master students at the Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka

1. Indigenous Knowledge Systems
lesson 9 - Traditional practices for, weather forecasting, plant
nutrient supplementing, pest and disease control and indigenous
agricultural machines and tools (2hrs)
• Course Code: MS 5208 (02:30/00)
• Saturday 3.30 pm – 5.30 pm (ZOOM)
PART 2
• P.B. Dharmasena
• 0777 - 613234, 0717 – 613234
• dharmasenapb@ymail.com , dharmasenapb@gmail.com
• Links to publications:
https://independent.academia.edu/PunchiBandageDharmasena
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Punchi_Bandage_Dharmasena/cont
ributions
http://www.slideshare.net/DharmasenaPb
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC_PFqwl0OqsrxH1wTm_jZeg

2. Indigenous Knowledge Systems
2. Fundamental features of Sri Lankan Agriculture; climate, Soil, Genetic
resources, agro biodiversity (2 hrs)
3. History and the culture of Sri Lankan agriculture sector development (1 hr)
4. Green revolution and its impact on Sri Lankan traditional agricultural
system (biodiversity deterioration, inorganic substances for pest and disease
controlling, development of hybrid varieties etc.) (1hr)
5. Indigenous soil management practices (2hrs)
6. Indigenous Irrigation systems (cascade system, water harvesting concepts)
(2hrs)
9. Traditional practices for, weather forecasting, plant nutrient
supplementing, pest and disease control and indigenous agricultural
machines and tools (2hrs)
13. Cultural dimensions of Agricultural rituals in Sri Lanka (2 hrs)
14. Climate change and Indigenous Agricultural knowledge in Sri Lanka(2
hrs)
List of lectures by P.B. Dharmasena

3. Traditional Soil Fertility Management
Practices in Paddy Fields
• Follow period
• Planting trees on
paddy fields
• Utilization of
nutrients in irrigation
water
• Green manuring and
animal waste
• Aquaculture in
paddy fields

4. Fallow period
• Fallow periods add nutrients to the
soil, depending on their length.
• If farmers cultivate only during one
season; paddy field is left fallow over
8 months.
• If they cultivate two seasons ; still the
field is left fallow for about 5
months.
• In addition, some parts of the paddy
fields are left fallow for years due to
various reasons.
• Most farmers own more than one plot
in the village paddy tract, but cultivate
only the best plots, leaving others for
use when there is sufficient rains.
• In some cases, lack of capital and
labour may cause some plots to be left
fallow.
• Because of scarcity of water, some
farmers cultivate only the areas
farthest below the tank during the
maha season and only the upper
portion close to the tank during the
yala season.

5. Fallow period
• During the fallow period,
farmers encourage the growth
of leguminous weeds on paddy
fields. For example, some of
the common weeds grown on
the fallow paddy fields are:
• Cassia tora (Pethi thora),
• Tephrosia purpurea (Pila),
• Mimosa pudica (Nidikumba).
• Besides, during the fallow
period, buffaloes and cattle are
allowed to graze on the fallow
paddy fields. Hence, a large
volume of dung and urine is
accumulated on the paddy
fields, enhancing its fertility.
• The long fallow period also
permit the remaining paddy
residues and other vegetative
matter to decay, adding
organic matter to the paddy
soil.

6. Planting trees on paddy fields
• It is traditional among the
farmers in the dry zone to
plant perennial trees on their
paddy fields.
• They planted 4 to 5 trees per
acre. Even today, sparsely
grown trees are a major
characteristic of the paddy
fields in traditional villages.
• The purpose of planting
trees on paddy fields was to
provide shade during
relaxation and during meals.
Women used to keep their
children under these trees
when they worked in paddy
fields.
• These trees also contributed
to the fertility of paddy
fields.

7. Planting trees on paddy fields
• The best example is
Madhuca longifolia or Mee
tree
• Even today the Mee tree is
a common sight in old
paddy fields. It is
interesting to note that
fruits of the Mee are eaten
by fruit bats. They
congregate on Mee trees
when fruits are ripe and
their nitrogen rich
droppings are an important
source of fertilizer.
• The leaves of these trees
are also rich in nitrogen, so
the accumulation of leaves
on the paddy fields further
increases the fertility of
soils.

8. Utilization of nutrients in irrigation water
• Since the upper catchment area around the paddy tract was
covered with forest, the water runoff and leachate from the
forest was rich in nutrients.
• The forest runoff brought suspended fertile silt and soluble plant
nutrients to the paddy fields, renewing soil fertility each year.
• Of the several nutrients found in irrigation water, those present
in relatively large quantities are potassium (K), calcium (Ca),
magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), and silicon (Si).
• Some of the silt carried by the forest runoff was carried directly
to the paddy tract, while the rest was deposited at the bottom of
the tank. Once in several years, farmers used to remove the tank
silt and added it to the paddy tract.
• Furthermore, during the periods when the tank dried up, the
mud-sluice (the sluice in the lowest location) directed a lot of silt
to the paddy tract.
• It is also said that the traditional farmers used to utilize the
nitrogen from the rainwater. They believed that the first rains
(Akvessa) contained nitrogen. Therefore, in order to gain the
advantage of the nitrogen in the first rains, they used to sow the
paddy before the first rains.

9. Green manuring and animal wastes
• Green manures have been
added to the paddy fields for
many years.
• Some of the common
species used as green
manure for paddy fields
were:
• Croton lacciferus
(Keppitiya),
• Tephrosia purpurea
(Pila),
• Cassia occidenialis
(Penitora),
• Aleurites triloba
(Telkekuna), and
• Azadirachta indica
(Kohomba).

10. Green manuring and animal wastes
• Traditional paddy cultivars had long stems, so in the
past there was much more straw to return to the field
than today with short stem cultivars.
• Since almost all farmers had their own cattle and
buffaloes, there was ample supply of manure.
Farmers allow them to graze the paddy fields
• However, no evidence exists to prove any direct
application of manure to the paddy fields, but wastes
accumulated on the uplands around the paddy tract
were washed away to the paddy tract, enhancing its
fertility.
• Waste washed into paddy fields from Landa,
thisbambe, gangoda, gaala (cattleshed) contributes to
enhance the fertility of paddy fields

11. Aquaculture in Paddy Fields
• It has been traditional among the paddy farmers
to keep paddy fields flooded during the early
stage of the growing season to eradicate weeds.
This practice, in turn encouraged the breeding
of fish in paddy fields, providing valuable
protein at little additional cost.
• Fish colonized the paddy fields at the beginning
of the rainy season, then got trapped in the
pools when the water began to recede at the
onset of the harvest.
• Fish were caught by bailing water out of pools.
Some species which survive in the paddy fields
become adapted to the drought conditions. For
instance, the air breathing fish:
• Anabas testudinius (Kavaiya),
• Ophiocephalus spp. (Lula, Mada Kanaya),
• Clarias teysmanni (Magura), and
• Heteropneustes fossilis (Hunga)
These species can survive conditions of
severe drought.

12. Aquaculture in Paddy Fields
• Fish that lived in the flooded paddy
fields benefitted the paddy crop in
various ways. While the carnivorous
species helped to control harmful
insects and worms, the herbivorous
species consumed algae and weeds,
leaving more space and nutrients for
paddy.
• Furthermore, they improved soil
aeration and increased the rate of
mineralization by disturbing the
bottom, and provided fertilizer
through release of excrement
• All contributed to increasing the
productivity of paddy fields. It has
been shown that fish in flooded paddy
fields increase the paddy harvest by
as much as 15%

13. Landa
Thisbambe
Gangoda Kattakaduwa
Kiul-ela
Paddy field soil resource - no salinity, good fertility: High productivity
Nutrient supplementing through recycling

14. • Chena cultivation
• Sharing land based on productivity
• Burning the vegetation to obtain
high biomass, ash and debris
• Mixed cropping
Nutrient conservation and adaptability to
nutrient status
• Selection of crop on soil fertility level:
• Nawadali hena – very fertile:
mustard, legumes, vegetables
• Ath danduwawa – fertile:
legumes, vegetables, coarse grains
• Landu hena – moderately fertile:
coarse grains, sesame
• Kanathu, piti – less fertile:
sesame, meneri
• Goda wee hena – imperfectly
drained:paddy, vegetable

15. • Paddy cultivation
• Shallow tillage – water and nutrient
conservation
• Drainage – dispose of polluted water
• Varietal selection – duration, medicinal
value, season, water logging, salinity
Nutrient conservation and adaptability to
nutrient status
Variety Duration
Hata daawee 70 days
Rathdel, 2 ½ months
Suwandel,Rath el,Pachchaperumal,Batapola el,Heenati,
Dahanala,Kuruluthuda
3 ½ months
Madathawalu,Gonabaru 4 months
Dikwee,Kahatawee,suduru samba,Sulai 4 ½ months
Maawee, 5 ½ months

16. Robert Nox - 1681
Indigenous agricultural implements and tools
Modern

17. TRADITIONAL SHALLOW TILLAGE
• Formation of
hard pan at 4-6”
depth
• Rice root system
within 6” is
more active
• Water is not
percolated due to
hard pan
• Nutrient is not
lost from the
root zone
• Weeds with tap
root are not
comfortable
Lewis - 1884

18. • Chena cultivation
• lands after cultivation are left out for years. Land productivity is rejuvenated to
make the crop pest and disease resistant
• Paddy fields
• Kurulupaluwa – Attraction of birds for the paddy field and allow eat insects
• Maintenance of rice – weed ratio for pest management (small plots)
• Village commons – Habitats for predators
• Forest tanks are left out for wild life to keep them away from farm fields
PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL

19. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
The term Kem is derived from the Sanskrit kshema which means
protection. The earliest references to Kem are found in the thirteenth
century literary works Pujavaliya and Saddharmaratnavaliya but it is
possible that kem practices existed in society from earlier times.
A kem is a kind of practice, technique or custom that is followed in
order to obtain some favourable effect such as relief from a specific
illness.
Some kems are mechanical methods, like lighting of fire torches.
There are various conditions that have to be met to make the working
of kems successful. For example, the farmer should not visit the field
being treated for a specific period.
19

20. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
They believe that that plant diseases could be remedied, pests
could be controlled and harvest could be protected by resorting
to certain Kem measures.
14th – 15th centuries in some Tamil literary texts it states that
 Ashes of the burnt wood of a ruined house or hut were spread
on the ridges of the paddy field to protect the crop from birds,
insects and wild animals.
20

21. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
 At present spreading ash on paddy plants in the morning
 Before smearing ash, water is drained from the field and after
smearing, the field is kept dry for four days.
 Due to the effect of ash, insects on paddy plants move downwards
from the plant and on to the soil.
 The eggs of the insects are also wiped out by the farmer with a bundle of
Keppetiya (Croton laccifer) leaves. After four days the field is inundated
again and the insects that moved down due to the effects of ash die in
water.
21

22. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
In remote areas of the Kurunegala district,
insects that harm the paddy plants were
removed by burning dried leaves of
Gandapana (Lantana camara), Keppetiya,
Dodampana (Glycosmis pentaphylla) and
Sera (Cymbopogon citrates).
 It is believed that fumigating would
dispel the flies and insects.
22

23. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
 The Kem measures associated
with smearing the crushed plant
parts
 Madu (Cycas circinalis),
 Valdel (Atrocarpus nobilis),
 Kokkana or kokun (Kokoona
zeylanica),
 Godapara (Dillenia retusa),
 Demata (Gmelina asiatica)
 Kukuruman (Randia
dumetorum)
Most of these emanate a strong
smell which is disliked by
insects and so they leave the
paddy field.
23

24. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
 Juice obtained by crushing roots or leaves
of
 Katurumurunga (Sesbania grandflora),
 Devata (Carallia brachiata),
 Kapparavalliya (Coleus amboinicus),
 Daluk (Euphorbia antiquorum),
 Vara (Calatropis giganta),
 Endaru or castor (Ricinus communis),
 Niyangala (Gloriosa superba),
 Keppetiya,
 Karanda (Pongambia glabra)
 These are mixed with water in the
paddy field by farmers to wade off the
pests. 24

25. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
In Nuvarakalaviya and
Tamankaduwa, farmers
prepare a concoction (mixture)
of
Magnesium sulphate
(Sahinda lunu),
 Potash alum
(Seenakkaran),
Copper sulphate
(Palmanikkam)
Mixture is applied to water of
the paddy field in order to get
rid of harmful pests.
25
• In Siyane Korale, Hopitigam
Korale, Alutkuru Korale,
Hanguranketha and Kotmale
farmers
• Wet a large piece of cloth
by soaking it with a mixture
of resins (dummala) oil
• Fit on to a rope.
• Before sunrise the rope was
dragged through the paddy
field by two persons
holding the ends and insects
got trapped in the sticky
cloth.

26. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan
kema).
• Tiny clay pots or seedless raw
papaya (Carica papaya) pieces were
used as lamps.
• The oils of either coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Kohomba, Mee
(Madhuka longifolia), Sesame or
Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum) is
poured into these lamps and the
wicks of the lamps were burnt for
three nights.
26

27. SPIRITUAL PRACTICES - KEM
• The oil lamp or torch Kem (pahan kema).
• Tiny clay pots or seedless raw papaya (Carica
papaya) pieces were used as lamps.
• The oils of either coconut (Cocos nucifera),
Kohomba, Mee (Madhuka longifolia),
Sesame or Kekuna (Scutinanthe zeylanicum)
is poured into these lamps and the wicks of
the lamps were burnt for three nights.
27