1) Nitrogen enters the body through dietary protein and is metabolized through amino acids. Amino acids are broken down and the nitrogen is removed as ammonia, which is converted to urea to be excreted.
2) The amino acid pool and protein turnover are key concepts in nitrogen metabolism. Amino acids from protein breakdown replenish the amino acid pool, which is also used for protein synthesis and other processes.
3) Dietary proteins are digested by enzymes in the stomach and pancreas into dipeptides and tripeptides, then fully into amino acids by intestinal enzymes for absorption.
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS Rabia Khan Baber
Protein are the important tissue builders in body which it can help in the cell structure, functions, hemoglobin formation to carry oxygen, enzyme for metabolic reaction and other functions in the body. Also in supply the nitrogen for the DNA and RNA genetic materials and the energy production. This is because, protein contain long chain of amino acids
Protein metabolism is the process to breakdown foods are used by During protein metabolism, some of the protein will converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis process.
This presentation includes Biochemistry of protein metabolism.
It deals with Digestion & absorption of protein, transamination, deamination, Nitrogen Metabolism & Meatbolism of Glycine, Aromatic Amino acids, Sulphur containing Amino acid, one carbon metabolism. it also includes cases and questions for self study.
Formation and fate of Ammonia
Transdeamination, oxidative and non oxidative deamination, Ammonia transport, Ammonia intoxication, Ammonia detoxification
Absorption of proteins ppt
composition of protein ppt
digestion of protein ppt
Absorption of protein ppt
absorption of amino acid ppt
function of protein ppt
amino acid ppt
role enzyme ppt
brief overview of metabolism of all the essential & non essential amino acids along with their metabolic defects and special proteins synthesized from them
Hormonal regulation of proteins metabolismOMEED AKBAR
During digestion, proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries of villi and enter the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
The principle sources of protein are pulses, cereals, peas, beans and nuts and principle animal sources are milk and its products, meat, fish, liver, eggs etc.
Primarily proteins are hydrolyzed from polypeptides to dipeptides and then finally they are converted in amino acids and absorbed in gut.
Digestion of proteins begins in stomach and happens at different levels in GI tract by help of different digestive enzymes.
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS Rabia Khan Baber
Protein are the important tissue builders in body which it can help in the cell structure, functions, hemoglobin formation to carry oxygen, enzyme for metabolic reaction and other functions in the body. Also in supply the nitrogen for the DNA and RNA genetic materials and the energy production. This is because, protein contain long chain of amino acids
Protein metabolism is the process to breakdown foods are used by During protein metabolism, some of the protein will converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis process.
This presentation includes Biochemistry of protein metabolism.
It deals with Digestion & absorption of protein, transamination, deamination, Nitrogen Metabolism & Meatbolism of Glycine, Aromatic Amino acids, Sulphur containing Amino acid, one carbon metabolism. it also includes cases and questions for self study.
Formation and fate of Ammonia
Transdeamination, oxidative and non oxidative deamination, Ammonia transport, Ammonia intoxication, Ammonia detoxification
Absorption of proteins ppt
composition of protein ppt
digestion of protein ppt
Absorption of protein ppt
absorption of amino acid ppt
function of protein ppt
amino acid ppt
role enzyme ppt
brief overview of metabolism of all the essential & non essential amino acids along with their metabolic defects and special proteins synthesized from them
Hormonal regulation of proteins metabolismOMEED AKBAR
During digestion, proteins are hydrolyzed into amino acids. Amino acids are absorbed by the capillaries of villi and enter the liver via the hepatic portal vein.
The principle sources of protein are pulses, cereals, peas, beans and nuts and principle animal sources are milk and its products, meat, fish, liver, eggs etc.
Primarily proteins are hydrolyzed from polypeptides to dipeptides and then finally they are converted in amino acids and absorbed in gut.
Digestion of proteins begins in stomach and happens at different levels in GI tract by help of different digestive enzymes.
Proteins are macro-molecules crucial for cell life, which are made up of amino acids (AAs). In healthy people, protein synthesis and degradation are well balanced. However, in the presence of hypercatabolic stimulation (i.e., inflammation), protein breakdown increases as the resulting AAs are consumed for metabolic proposes. Indeed, AAs are biochemical totipotent molecules which, when deaminated, can be transformed into energy, lipids, carbohydrates, and/or biochemical intermediates of fundamental cycles, such as the Krebs’ cycle. The biochemical consequence of hyper-catabolism is protein disarrangement, clinically evident with signs such as sarcopenia, hypalbuminemia, anaemia, infection, and altered fluid compartmentation, etc. Hypercatabolic protein disarrangement (HPD) is often underestimated by clinicians, despite correlating with increased mortality, hospitalization, and morbidity quite independent of the primary disease. Simple, cheap, repeatable measurements can be used to identify HPD. Therefore, identification and treatment of proteins’ metabolic impairment with appropriate measurements and therapy is a clinical strategy that could improve the prognosis of patients with acute/chronic hypercatabolic inflammatory disease. Here, we describe the metabolism of protein and AAs in hypercatabolic syndrome, illustrating the clinical impact of protein disarrangement. We also illustrate simple, cheap, repeatable, and worldwide available measurements to identify these conditions. Finally, we provide scientific evidence for HPD nutritional treatment.
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Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
2. Overall nitrogen metabolism
• Amino acid are not stored in the body, that is, no
protein exists whose function is to maintain a
supply of amino acids for future use.
• Amino acid catabolism is a part of the large process
of the metabolism of nitrogen-containing
molecules.
• Nitrogen enter the body in a variety of compounds
found in the food, the most important being amino
acids contained in dietary protein.
2
3. • Nitrogen leaves the body as urea, ammonia and
other products derived from amino acid
metabolism
• The role of body proteins in these
transformations involves two important
concepts:
• The amino acid pool and protein turnover.
3
4. A. Amino acid pool
• Free amino acids are present throughout the
body, for example, in cells, blood and the
extracellular fluids.
• Amino acid pool supplied by three sources:
Amino acid provided by degradation of body
protein.
From dietary protein.
Synthesis of nonessential amino acids from simple
intermediates of metabolism
4
5. • Conversely, the amino pool is depleted by three
routes:
Synthesis of body protein.
Amino acid consumed as precursor of essential
nitrogen-containing small molecule.
Conversion of amino acids to glucose, glycogen,
fatty acids, ketone bodies, or CO2 + H2O.
• Although the amino acid pool is small (comprised of
about 90-100 g of amino acids) in comparison with
the amount of the protein in the body (about 12 kg
in a 70kg man), it is conceptually at the center of
whole-body nitrogen metabolism.
5
7. B. Protein turnover
• Most proteins in the body are constantly being
synthesized and then degraded, permitting the
removal of abnormal or unneeded proteins.
• For many proteins, regulation of synthesis
determined the concentration of protein in the
cell, with protein degradation assuming a minor
role.
• For other proteins, the rate of synthesis is
constitutive, that is, relatively constant, and
cellular levels of the protein are controlled by
selective degradation.
7
8. Digestion of proteins
• The dietary proteins are denatured on cooking
and therefore more easily to digested by a
digestive enzymes.
• All these enzymes are hydrolases in nature.
• Proteolytic enzymes are secreted as inactive
zymogens which are converted to their active
form in the intestinal lumen.
• This would prevent autodigestion of the
secretory acini.
8
9. The proteolytic enzymes include:
• Endopeptidases:
They act on peptide bonds inside the protein molecule, so
that the protein becomes successively smaller and smaller
units. This group includes pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin,
and elastase.
• Exopeptidases:
This group acts at the peptide bond only at the end region of
the chain. This includes carboxypeptidase acting on the
peptide only at the carboxyl terminal end on the chain and
aminopeptidase, which acts on the peptide bond only at
the amino terminal end of the chain. 9
10. A. Gastric digestion of proteins:
• In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is
secreted. It makes the pH optimum for the
action of pepsin and also activates pepsin.
• The acid also denatures the proteins. But
hydrochloric acid at body temperature
could not break the peptide bonds.
• Thus in the stomach, HCl alone will not
able to digest proteins; it needs enzymes.
10
11. 1) Rennin:
• Rennin otherwise called chymosin, is active
in infants and is involved in the curdling of
milk. It is absent in adults.
• Milk protein, casein is converted to
paracasein by the action of rennin.
• The denatured protein is easily digested
further by pepsin.
11
12. 2) Pepsin:
• It is secreted by the chief cells of stomach as
inactive pepsinogen.
• The conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin is
brought about by the hydrochloric acid.
• The optimum pH for activity of pepsin is around
2.
• Pepsin is an endopeptidase.
• By the action of pepsin, proteins are broken into
proteoses. 12
13. B. Pancreatic digestion of proteins:
• The optimum pH for the activity of pancreatic
enzyme (pH 8) is provided by the alkaline bile
and pancreatic juice.
• The secretion of pancreatic juice is stimulated by
the peptide hormones, cholecystokinin and
pancreozymin.
• Pancreatic juice contains the important
endopeptidases, namely trypsin, chymotrypsin,
elastase and carboxypeptidase 13
14. 1) Trypsin:
• Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase present
on the intestinal microvillus membranes. Once
activated, the trypsin activates other enzyme
molecules.
• Trypsin catalyzes hydrolysis of the bonds formed
by carboxyl groups of Arg and Lys.
• Acute pancreatitis: Premature activation of
trypsinogen inside the pancreas itself will result in
the autodigestion of pancreatic cells. The result is
acute pancreatitis. It is a life-threatening
condition
14
15. 2) Chymotrypsin:
• Trypsin will act on chymotrypsinogen, so that the
active site is formed. Thus, selective proteolysis
produces the catalytic site.
3) Carboxypeptidases:
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin degrade the proteins
into small peptides; these are further hydrolyzed
into dipeptides and tripeptides by
carboxypeptidases present in the pancreatic juice.
They are metallo-enzymes requiring zinc.
15
16. C. Intestinal digestion of proteins:
• Complete digestion of the small peptides to the
level of amino acids is brought about by enzymes
present in intestinal juice (succus entericus).
• The luminal surface of intestinal epithelial cells
contains Amino- peptidases, which release the N-
terminal amino acids successively.
16
17. Absorption of amino acids
• The absorption of amino acids occurs mainly in the
small intestine. It is an energy requiring process.
These transport systems are carrier mediated
systems.
• These are five different carriers for different amino
acids.
• Moreover,
glutathione (gamma glutamylcysteinylglycine) also
plays an important role in the absorption of amino
acids.
17
18. Clinical applications:
• The allergy to certain food proteins (milk, fish)
is believed to result from absorption of
partially digested proteins.
• Partial gastrectomy, pancreatitis, carcinoma of
pancreas and cystic fibrosis may affect the
digestion of proteins and absorption of amino
acids.
18
19. General metabolism of amino acids:
• Dietary proteins and body proteins are broken
down to amino acids. This is called catabolic
reactions.
• In transamination reaction, amino group of amino
acid is removed to produce the carbon skeleton
(keto acid). The amino group is excreted as urea.
• The carbon skeleton is used for synthesis of non-
essential amino acids.
• It is also used for gluconeogenesis or for complete
oxidation.
• Amino acids are used for synthesis of body proteins;
this is anabolic reaction. 19
20. Formation of Ammonia
• The first step in the catabolism of amino
acids is to remove the amino group as
ammonia.
• Ammonia is highly toxic especially to the
nervous system.
• Detoxification of ammonia is by
conversion to urea and excretion through
urine.
20
21. A. Transamination
• Transamination is the exchange of amino
group between amino acid and another keto
acid, forming a new alpha amino acid.
• The enzyme catalyzing the reaction as a group
known as transaminases (amino
transferases).
• These enzymes have pyridoxal phosphate as
prosthetic group.
• The reaction is readily reversible.
21
23. Biological significance of transamination
1. First step of catabolism:
Ammonia is removed, and rest of the amino acid is
entering into catabolic pathway.
2. Synthesis of non-essential amino acids:
By means of transamination, all non-essential
amino acids could be synthesized by the body from
keto acids available for other sources
23
24. Clinical significance of
transamination
• Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is
increased in myocardial infarction
and alanine amino transferase (ALT)
in liver diseases
24
25. B. Trans-deamination
• It means transamination followed by oxidative
deamination.
• All amino acids are first transaminated to
glutamate, which is then finally deaminated.
• Glutamate dehydrogenase reaction is the final
reaction which removes the amino group of all
amino acids.
• Thus, the two components of the reaction are
physically far away, but physiologically they are
coupled. Hence, the term trans-deamination
25
27. Disposal/Detoxification of Ammonia
1. First line of defense (Trapping of ammonia):
• Even very minute quantity of ammonia may
produce toxicity in central nervous system.
• The intracellular ammonia is immediately trapped
by glutamic acid to form glutamine, especially in
brain cells.
• The glutamine is then transported to liver, where
the reaction is reversed by the enzyme
glutaminase.
• The ammonia thus generated is immediately
detoxified into urea. 27
28. 2. Final disposal:
• The ammonia from all over the body thus
reaches liver.
• It is then detoxified to urea by liver cells.
• Then excreted through kidneys.
• Urea is the end product of protein
metabolism
28
29. Urea Cycle
• The cycle is known as Krebs-Henseleit urea
cycle.
• As ornithine is the first member of the
reaction sequences, it is called as Ornithine
cycle.
• The two nitrogen atoms of urea are derived
from two different sources, one from
ammonia and the other directly from
aspartic acid. 29
31. Steps of Urea Cycle
1. Formation of Carbamoyl Phosphate.
2. Formation of Citrulline.
3. Formation of Argininosuccinate.
4. Formation of Arginine.
5. Formation of Urea.
31
33. Regulation of the urea cycle
• During starvation, the activity of urea cycle
enzymes is elevated to meet the increased
rate of protein catabolism.
• The major regulatory steps is catalyzed by
CPS-I (Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase-I)
where the positive effectror is N-acetyl
glutamate (NAG).
33
34. Disorderers of urea cycle
• Deficiency of any of the urea cycle enzymes
would result in hyperammonemia.
• If block occur in one of the earlier steps, the
condition is more severe, since ammonia itself
accumulates.
• If deficiency occur in later enzymes, this result
in accumulation of other intermediates which
are less toxic and hence symptoms are less.
34
35. • The accumulation of ammonia in blood
(normally less than 50 mg/dl) and body
fluids results in toxic symptoms.
• Brain is very sensitive to ammonia.
• Child may be put on a low protein diet and
frequent small feeds are given.
• Since Citrulline is present in significant
quantities in milk, breast milk is to be
avoided in Citrullinemia.
35
36. Urea level in blood and urine
• In clinical practice, blood urea level is taken as an
indicator of renal function.
• The normal urea level in plasma is from 20 to 40
mg/dl.
• Blood urea level is increased where renal function
is inadequate.
• Urinary excretion of urea is 15 to 30 g/day (6-15
g nitrogen/day).
• Urea constitutes 80% of urinary organic solids.
36